Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, San Diego, and San Diego State University, 2006. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 81-89).

While child and adolescent depressive disorders have been historically studied as a downward extension of adult depression, recent research has supported the existence of child and adolescent depression as a distinct disorder and has indicated important developmental differences in symptomatology (Birmaher, Ryan, Williamson, Brent, & Kaufman, 1996; Lewinsohn, Hops, Roberts, Seeley, & Andrews, 1993), as well as greater intensity and endurance of depressive disorders in childhood and adolescence than in adults (Jensen, Ryan, & Prien, 1992). Continued research with adolescence is particularly necessary because such symptomatology can manifest in self destructive or even life threatening behaviors. Symptoms such as depressed mood, irritability, and diminished interest in activities can lead to cognitive, familial, and social problems (Hammen & Rudolph, 1996). There is a particular need to investigate ways to identify individuals at risk for depression, and highlighting interactions between risk factors could make this possible. Childhood and adolescent investigations have under-examined the self-schema and its possible ability to moderate the effect of negative life events on depression. The current study investigated the role of life events as an element that, when combined with distorted and negative cognitions relating to the self, would increase the existence of depressive symptomatology in adolescents. Self-schemas, life events, and interactions of both variables were examined as predictors of the severity of depressive symptomatology in 9- to 14-year old girls in two public school districts in Central Texas. Participants completed a self-report measure of depression, a projective measure of the self-schema, a self-report measure of life events, and a diagnostic interview. As expected, a negative self-schema significantly predicted level of depressive symptomatology. However, the experience of adverse life events did not predict level of depressive symptomatology. Additionally, while analyses demonstrated that adverse life events and negative self-schema together predicted the severity of depressive symptoms to a statistically significant degree, the interaction of the two independent variables did not predict severity of depressive symptoms. Implications of the results, limitations, and recommendations for future research are provided. / text

Depression is one of the most common psychological disorders and may be considered as one of the most prevalent forms of emotional/psychological illness among children. The prevalence of depressive disorders tends to rise dramatically during adolescence. Cognitive diathesis-stress models maintain that depression is produced through an interaction between cognitive vulnerability and negative life events. According to Beck, core beliefs are at the core of cognitive vulnerability. After the occurrence of a negative life event, the core belief is activated and influences how the individual interprets the negative life event. Beck maintains that three core beliefs are central to the development and maintenance of depressive disorders: the belief that one is helpless, unlovable, and/or worthless. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a coding system for a storytelling task could reliably assess Beck’s core beliefs. In doing so, this study sought to build upon previous research on the relations between negative life events, core beliefs, and depressive symptomatology among pre- and early adolescent females. Participants were 130 girls ranging in age from 9 to 14. All girls completed a self-report measure of life events and a projective story-telling measure that was used to assess their core beliefs. Participants also completed a semi-structured diagnostic interview, which served as the primary measure of depressive symptom severity. In support of previous research, both negative life events and negative core beliefs uniquely predicted the severity of depressive symptoms. Consistent with Beck’s cognitive model, the helpless and unlovable core beliefs uniquely predicted severity of depressive symptoms, although the worthless core belief did not. Further examination indicated that the helpless core belief was a more powerful influence on depressive symptoms than were the unlovable and worthless core beliefs. Contrary to Beck’s diathesis-stress model, however, negative core beliefs did not moderate the effects of negative life events on depressive symptomatology. For girls aged 9-11, however, a helpless core belief moderated the effects of negative life events on depressive symptom severity. Implications of these results, limitations, and future directions for research are discussed. / text

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a severe dysphoric form of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) that is included as a diagnosis for further study in the DSM-IV (APA, 2000). A primary aim of the present study was to characterize the co-occurrence of PMDD and major depression, in a sample that spans the entire range of depressive severity. The range included non-depressed controls, women meeting criteria for dysthymia, and women meeting criteria for current Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Co-occurrence of MDD and PMDD were only statistically significant when considering Lifetime MDD. Resting frontal electroencephalographic (EEG) asymmetry has been hypothesized to tap a diathesis toward depression or other emotion-related psychopathology. Another primary aim was to assess Frontal EEG asymmetry in college women who meet criteria for Pre-Menstrual Dysphoric Disorder (n = 25) and 25 matched controls. Participants were assessed four times in a two week period. Women reporting low premenstrual dysphoric symptomatology exhibited greater relative left frontal activity at rest than did women high in premenstrual dysphoric symptomatology. These results are consistent with a diathesis-stress model for premenstrual dysphoric symptomatology. A secondary aim was to assess whether individuals with PMDD or menstrual related mood variability, but no current diagnosis of depression, have an increased family history of depression. Promising evidence of a relationship between family history of MDD and a likelihood of PMDD was discovered. A trend was found for Spectrum PMDD women: a higher rate of Family History of MDD (36%) than non PMDD women (19.6%). Ideally, resting frontal electroencephalographic (EEG) asymmetry could help us learn more about the etiology of depression and hormonal-related depression specifically, and test whether they may share etiological factors.

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Magister Psychologiae - MPsych / The outcome of child abuse, i.e. physical, emotional and/or sexual, and child neglect is multifactorial. The severity, duration and nature of abuse and the child’s vulnerabilities are all contributory factors with regards the outcome of abuse. Children who are traumatized are likely to be profoundly affected. Studies have shown and nearly every researcher agrees that early childhood traumas lie at the root of many emotional and psychological illnesses. It has been noted that drug abuse is a major problem in the Western Cape. This thesis explored the relationship between subjectively perceived childhood trauma and drug dependence in an in-patient treatment-seeking sample of adults in the Cape Town Metropolitan Area in the Western Cape. This thesis presents the results of a measure of childhood trauma, namely the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire [CTQ] and a measure of drug dependence, the Drug Use Disorder Identification Test [DUDIT]. The sample consisted of 52 participants and included both males and females. Only participants who were identified as drug dependent were included in the study. Patients who were actively psychotic and/or alcohol dependent were not included in the study. Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of the Western Cape’s higher degree ethical committee. The anonymity of the participants, the importance of responding openly and honestly and the sensitive nature of the questions were highlighted during the test administration. Questionnaires were administered in accordance with the guidelines stipulated in the respective manuals. The data was analysed through correlation. The study found a positive correlation between childhood emotional abuse and drug dependence, and childhood physical abuse and drug dependence.

Despite a high proportion of the population experiencing traumatic events within their lifetime, the number of individuals who go on to develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is comparatively small; herein highlighting the importance of individual differences in imparting risk and resilience towards the development and maintenance of PTSD. Existing literature illustrates that biological and ecological factors are important in predicting PTSD development, with pathological vulnerabilities excepting their effects at pre- peri- and post trauma stages. Whilst cognitive and emotion based models of PTSD account for the role of a minority of known pre-trauma risk factors, individual differences in peri- and post trauma processes are held as critical to the development of PTSD. The broad range of risk factors implicated in the empirical literature, and necessity of traumatic exposure to PTSD, implicates the utility of a diathesis-stress conceptualisation of PTSD development. The current thesis employed an analogue VR-trauma paradigm to investigate the respective importance of vulnerability factors at each stage, in the prediction of analogue PTSD symptoms (memory problems, startle responses, re-exposure fear habituation), whilst measuring affective and electrophysiological concomitance. Findings supported the importance of peri-traumatic responses in the prediction of PTSD, where present, showing increased predictive capacities over pre- and post-trauma factors. Biological and ecological factors also illustrated important predictive associations, with genetic SNPs implicated in reflex startle and cardiac responses towards intrusive memories. Moreover, peri-traumatic HR decelerations and accelerations mediated the association between pre-trauma factors and cued recall inaccuracy and intrusion severity respectively. Results support existing cognitive and emotional models in their emphasis on peri-traumatic processes but suggest the added utility of a diathesis stress conceptualisation of the development of PTSD, in highlighting the importance of pre-trauma biological and ecological risk and resilience factors.