Electrical motors and/or hydraulics and pneumatics cylinders are commonly used methods of actuation in mechanical systems. Over the last two decades, due to arising market needs, novel self-independent mobile systems such as mobility assistive devices have emerged with the help of new advancements in technology. The actuation criteria for these devices differ greatly from typical mechanical systems, which has made the implementation of classical actuators difficult within modern assistive devices. Among the numerous challenges, limited energy storage capabilities by mobile systems have restricted their achievable operational time. Furthermore, new expectations for device weight and volume, as well as actuator structural compliance, have added to this quandary. Electroactive polymers, a category of smart materials, have emerged as a strong contender for the use in low-cost efficient actuators. They have demonstrated great potential in soft robotic and assistive device/prosthetic applications due to their actuation potential and similar mechanical behaviour to human skeletal muscles. Dielectric Elastomers, in particular, have shown very promising properties for these types of applications. Their structures have shown large achievable deformation, while remaining light-weight, mechanically efficient, and low-cost. This thesis aims to characterize, and model the behaviour of 3MTM VHB polyacrylic dielectric elastomer, in order to establish a foundation for its implementation in a proposed novel linear actuator concept. In this thesis, a comprehensive experimental evaluation is accomplished, which resulted in the better understanding of the elastomer’s biaxial mechanical and electro-mechanically coupled behaviours. Subsequently, a constitutive biaxial mechanical model was derived in order to provide a predictive design equation for future actuator development. This model proved effective in providing a predictive tool for the biaxial mechanical tensile response of the material. Finally, a simplified prototype was devised as a proof of concept. This first iteration applied experimental findings to validate the working principles behind the proposed actuator design. The results confirmed the proof of concept, through achieved reciprocal linear motion, and provided insight into the design considerations for prototype optimization and final actuator development.

xviii, 213 p. / A print copy of this title is available through the UO Libraries under the call number: SCIENCE QC476.5 .F67 2006 / We investigate models describing two classes of microresonators: those having the shape of a dome, and those having an oval (deformed circle or sphere) shape. We examine the effects of dielectric interfaces in these structures. For the dome cavity, we derive efficient numerical methods for finding exact electromagnetic resonances. In the dome consisting of a concave conductor and a planar, dielectric Bragg mirror, we discover a phenomenon which we call paraxial mode mixing (PMM) or classical spin-orbit coupling. PMM is the sensitive selection of the true electromagnetic modes. The true modes are generally mixtures of pairs of vectorial Laguerre-Gauss modes. While each member of an LG pair possesses definite orbital angular momentum and spin (polarization), the mixed modes do not, and exhibit rich, non-uniform polarization patterns. The mixing is governed by an orthogonal transformation specified by the mixing angle (MA). The differences in reflection phases of a Bragg mirror at electric s and p polarization can be characterized in the paraxial regime by a wavelength-dependent quantity εs - εp. The MA is primarily determined by this quantity and varies with an apparent arctangent dependence, concomitant with an anticrossing of the maximally mixed modes. The MA is zero order in quantities that are small in the paraxial limit, suggesting an effective two-state degenerate perturbation theory. No known effective Hamiltonian and/or electromagnetic perturbation theory exists for this singular, vectorial, mixed boundary problem. We develop a preliminary formulation which partially reproduces the quantitative mixing behavior. Observation of PMM will require both small cavities and highly reflective mirrors. Uses include optical tweezers and classical and quantum information. For oval dielectric resonators, we develop reduced models for describing whispering gallery modes by utilizing sequential tunneling, the Goos-H¨anchen (GH) effect, and the generalized Born-Oppenheimer (adiabatic) approximation (BOA). While the GH effect is found to be incompatible with sequential tunneling, the BOA method is found to be a useful connection between ray optics and the exact wave solution. The GH effect is also shown to nicely explain a new class of stable V-shaped dome cavity modes. / Adviser: Dr. Jens Noeckel.

Une des propriétés intrinsèques des matériaux diélectriques est d'accumuler des charges électriques sous l'action de contraintes extérieures (température, champ électrique...). Ce phénomène utile dans certaines applications (mémoires non volatiles...), demeure en général une cause de défaillance (microsystèmes...). Il convient donc de disposer d'une méthode permettant de mesurer cette densité de charges aux échelles pertinentes pour le système. Du fait de la miniaturisation, les méthodes classiques de mesure de charge d'espace (PEA, FLIMM,...) ne sont plus adaptées, car leurs résolutions latérales de quelques micromètres est bien supérieure aux dimensions nanométriques des systèmes. Une nouvelle méthode de mesure de la charge d'espace basée sur la microscopie à champ proche, et plus particulièrement la mesure de potentiel de surface par microscopie à sonde de Kelvin (KPFM), permet d'obtenir des informations sur l'état de charge du matériau avec une résolution nanométrique. Notre objectif est d'étudier les phénomènes d'injection et de rétention de charges dans des diélectriques minces. Pour cela deux voies ont été explorées. La première consiste à injecter localement des charges à la surface d'une couche mince de SiOxNy d'épaisseur variable (entre 6nm et 130nm) et à mesurer les modifications du potentiel de surface induit par les charges. Les mesures de potentiel de surface (KPFM) et de courant (C-AFM) couplées à des simulations du champ électrique par éléments finis (COMSOL) ont mis en évidence que deux mécanismes sont en jeu lors de l'injection de charges : le piégeage dans la couche et la conduction au travers de la couche. Pour les épaisseurs les plus fines la conduction est le mécanisme majoritaire (ce qui limite la quantité de charges piégées) alors que pour les films plus épais le piégeage est majoritaire. Pour les films d'épaisseur intermédiaire les deux mécanismes sont en compétition. Une fois les charges injectées leur dissipation se fait majoritairement dans le volume selon une dynamique indépendante de l'épaisseur de la couche. La seconde voie consiste à étudier l'injection et le déplacement de charges entre deux électrodes latérales enfouies dans le diélectrique. Cette structure permet de s'affranchir du manque de sensibilité de la mesure KPFM à la profondeur des charges dans le volume et d'étudier les phénomènes d'injection aux interfaces et le transport de charges sous champ électrique. Le champ électrique induit entre les deux électrodes polarisées a été simulé par éléments finis sous COMSOL et comparé aux mesures de potentiel KPFM. Nous avons ainsi pu caractériser l'injection à l'interface métal/diélectrique et nous avons montré la faisabilité d'utiliser ce type de structure pour étudier la mobilité des charges au sein d'une couche diélectrique. / One of the intrinsic properties of dielectrics is to accumulate electrical charges when subjected to external stresses (temperature, electrical field ...). This property can be helpful for some applications (DRAM...), but leads generally to failure of the device (micro-system...). Thus, a charge density measurement technics is mandatory for the scale of relevance according to the observed system. However due to miniaturization, the measurement technics classically used are helpless to study tiny systems of a few tens nanometers thick, as their spatial resolution is of the order a few micrometers. A new measurement technics represented by KPFM (Kelvin Probe Microscopy) and based on near field microscopy technology, can measure charges on a material with nanoscale lateral resolution. Our purpose here is to characterize charges injection and decay mechanisms in thin SiOxNy and SiNx film deposited by plasma process, thanks to near field microscopy. To achieve this goal, two approaches have been explored. The first one consists in localized injection of electrical charges at the surface of a thin SiOxNy layer of variable thickness (between 6 nm and 130nm) and to measure surface potential modification induced by injected charges. Surface potential (KPFM) and current (C-AFM) measurements coupled to electric field simulation by finite element (COMSOL(r)) emphasizes that two mechanisms are involved during charges injection: trapping and conduction through the layer. For thinner layers, conduction mechanism is predominant (which limits trapped charges amount); while for thicker films trapping is the main mechanism. For intermediate thickness films both mechanisms are in competition. Once the charges injected, dissipation in volume appears to be the predominant mechanism for any thickness. The second approach is the study of charges injection and transport between two embedded lateral electrodes. This structure allows overcoming the lack of in-depth sensitivity of the KPFM measurement toward the position of charges in the volume, to study injection phenomena at interfaces and transport of charges within the volume under electrical field constraint. The electric field induced between the two polarized electrodes was simulated by finite element using COMSOL and compared to surface potential measured by KFM. Results emphasize technical issues related to charges injection/transport between lateral electrodes. According to this analysis an experimental set up and data post-treatment protocol is developed which permits to characterized charges injection at interface. Besides, feasibility of charges mobility investigation using this type of structure was demonstrated.

The interpretation and modelling of the dielectric response of thermosetting materials during cure was the main focus of this study. The equivalence of complex permittivity and complex impedance in terms of information content was outlined in a series of case studies covering the separate effects of dipolar movements and charge migration as well as the combined effect of the two polarisation mechanisms. Equivalent electrical circuits were used in order to model the evolution of the complex impedance during cure. A numerical method that can model consecutive spectra throughout the cure was developed. The method is based on Genetic Algorithms and requires only input from the modelling of the initial spectra. Complex impedance spectra were collected during the cure of a commercial epoxy resin formulation under isothermal and dynamic heating conditions. The spectra were analysed and modelled. The modelling was successful over the whole frequency range of the measurements (1 Hz – 1 MHz). The analysis of the estimated model parameters showed that charge migration dominates the dielectric response in a wide frequency range. In addition, the modelling algorithm also distinguished between the effects of electrode polarisation and dipolar movements in the signal. A new equivalent circuit was used in order to map the frequency regions where the each one of the three phenomena that together comprise the dielectric signal can be monitored most effectively. A chemical cure kinetics model was developed for the studied system. A correlation between the maximum point of the imaginary impedance spectrum and the reaction conversion was established. A mathematical model, based on a simple linear dependence of the dielectric signal on conversion and temperature, was built. The model predictions agreed well with the experimental data. The aim of simplifying the interpretation of the dielectric signals led to the development of a new experimental technique. Temperature Modulated Dielectric Analysis employs temperature modulations superimposed on an underlying thermal profile in order to separate the influence on the signal of the temperature alone from that of the cure reaction. The early study carried out here shows that such measurements are feasible and reveals important issues for its further development.

abstract: In sub transmission systems, many more raptor deaths have been recorded near metal poles rather than wood poles. The metal pole, which is reliable in structure but also grounded, may increase the risk of electrocution when raptors perch on the insulator. This thesis focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of the raptor guard to prevent both debilitating and lethal electrocutions to local wildlife in 69 kV sub transmission systems. First, the two-dimensional (2D) finite difference methods (FDM) were proposed to solve the Poisson and Laplace equations, which describe the electric field. Second, the verification of the FDM algorithm was made based on a parallel-plate capacitor model. Then, the potential and the electric field were simulated by the raptor-insulator model to evaluate the possibility of flashover and leakage current under various conceivable scenarios. Third, several dielectric performance experiments were implemented to gain insight into the physical property of the raptor guard developed by the Salt River Project (SRP) as an example. The proposed initial-tracking-voltage and time-to-track experiments tested the ability of the guard, which is designed to prevent the tracking phenomenon under a contaminated situation such as rain, fog, and snow. A data acquisition also collected the leakage current data for the comparison of maximum raptor tolerance. Furthermore, the puncture voltage of this guard material was performed by the dielectric breakdown voltage experiment in an oil-covered container. With the combination of the model simulation and the experiments in this research, the raptor guard was proven to be practical and beneficial in sub transmission system. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Electrical Engineering 2016

Cette thèse résume les travaux concernant les essais de fiabilité des commutateurs RF MEMS capacitifs et ohmiques développé par le CEA-Leti.Dans le premier chapitre les mesures de raideur par la technique de nano-indentation sur des commutateurs MEMS réels sont complétées par des observations AFM, MEB et FIB pour expliquer le comportement électrique des différents lots de commutateurs de type ohmique.Le deuxième chapitre présente les résultats de la caractérisation des propriétés structurales et physiques des diélectriques, qui sont généralement utilisés dans nos commutateurs RF MEMS ohmiques et capacitifs. Les analyses élémentaires confirment que tous les nitrures SiNx et oxydes SiO2 fabriqués par la technique PECVD ont une qualité inférieure par rapport à leurs homologues synthétisés à haute température.Les mécanismes de conduction sont identifiés dans SiNx et SiO2 PECVD en mesurant des courbes I-V sur les condensateurs MIM. Pour les deux nitrures SiNx, qui sont déposés en haute (HF) et fréquence mixte (MF), le mécanisme de conduction de type Poole-Frenkel. Pour le SiO2 le mécanisme de conduction est plus susceptible d'être contrôlé par émission Schottky. Les mesures I-V révèlent que tous ces matériaux piègent des charges parasites, il y a en effet une forte hystérésis entre les parties aller et retour de la courbe I-V.Pour étudier la cinétique de piégeage de charge des condensateurs MIM sont utilisés. Pour identifier les propriétés des pièges la technique d'injection à courant constant est utilisée. Le diélectrique SiNx PECVD montre une dépendance logarithmique de la cinétique de piégeage, tandis que le SiO2 montre une dépendance exponentielle. La concentration totale de pièges ne montre aucune dépendance pour les SiNx HF et SiO2 MF, ou une dépendance faible en fonction du champ pour le SiNx MF. La section efficace de capture dépend du champ pour les deux types de nitrures, ce qui est cohérent avec le modèle de piégeage à effet répulsif. Pour le SiO2, où un modèle de piégeage du premier ordre a été utilisé, la section efficace de capture est indépendante du champ. Dans le chapitre 4, les dérives de tension expérimentales sont mesurées lors des tests de stress à tension constante, pour différents niveaux de contrainte de tension. Dans la partie suivante, nous proposons une approche originale de modélisation de la dérive de la tension de "pull-in" basée sur le mécanisme de conduction et les propriétés de piégeage des diélectriques. Nous démontrons que grâce a notre modèle, il est possible d'expliquer les dérives de tension mesurée en termes de propriétés diélectriques bien identifiées. Cette procédure donne des résultats simulés en bon accord avec les mesures pour tous les matériaux, et permet de prédire les résultats de n'importe quelle séquence de vieillissement électrique. Nous utilisons ensuite notre modèle pour étudier l'effet des propriétés diélectriques et de la conception du commutateur sur le comportement à long terme de nos commutateurs MEMS. / This thesis summarizes the work concerning reliability testing of electrostatic capacitive- and ohmic-type RF MEMS switches developed by the CEA-Leti. In the first chapter the measurement of stiffness by the nanoindentation technique on real MEMS switches are completed by AFM, SEM and FIB observations in order to explain the electrical behavior of different wafers of the ohmic-type switches. The second chapter presents the results of the characterization of the structural and physical properties of the dielectrics, which are typically used in our ohmic- and capacitive-type RF MEMS switches. Elemental analyses confirm that all SiNx and SiO2 samples fabricated by the PECVD technique have inferior quality compared to their high-temperature counterparts.The conduction mechanism are identified in PECVD SiNx and SiO2 by measuring I-V curves on MIM capacitors. For both SiNx materials, that is deposited in high- (HF) and mixed-frequency (MF) mode, the conduction process is controlled by Poole-Frenkel mechanism. For the MF SiO2 the conduction mechanism is most likely to be controlled by Schottky emission. The I-V measurements reveal, that all these materials are prone to trapping parasitic charge, which is observed as hysteresis between the ramp-up and ramp-down parts of the I-V curve.For studying the kinetics of charge trapping the MIM capacitors are used. To identify the trapping properties the constant current injection technique is used. The PECVD SiNx dielectric turns out to show logarithmic dependence of the trapping kinetics, while the SiO2 shows an exponential dependence. The total concentration of traps shows no field-dependence for the HF SiNx and MF SiO2 or weak field dependence for the MF SiNx sample. The capture cross section is field dependent for both samples with SiNx, which is consistent with the repulsive trapping model. For the SiO2, where the first order trapping model was used, the capture cross-section is not field dependent.In the chapter 4, experimental voltage drifts are measured during constant voltage stress tests for different voltage stress levels. In the following part we propose an original approach to modeling of the voltage drifts based on the identified conduction mechanism and trapping properties of the dielectrics. We demonstrate that thanks to our model it is possible to explain the measured voltage drifts in terms of the identified dielectric properties. The simulated results are in good agreement with experimental ones for all investigated materials and it allows to predict the voltage drift for any aging conditions. In the next step, we use our model to study the effect of the dielectric properties and the switch design on the long term behavior of RF MEMS switches.

Le développement d'applications sans fil conduit à une demande croissante de composants électroniques à large bande. Les inductances et les transformateurs sont des éléments clés pour les étapes de gestion d'énergie et de la communication. La connaissance du comportement électrique des matériaux magnétiques est essentiel, surtout lorsque les applications à large bande sont concernés. L'objectif de cette thèse est de développer des techniques pour la caractérisation des matériaux déposé par procédé jet d'encre. The development of wireless applications leads to an increasing demand of electronic broadband components. Inductances and transformers are key components for power management and communication stages. The knowledge of the electric behaviour of the magnetic materials is critical especially when broadband applications are concerned. The objective of this thesis is to develop techniques to characterizing materials deposed by inkjet process. / The development of wireless applications leads to an increasing demand of electronic broadband components. Inductances and transformers are key components for power management and communication stages. The knowledge of the electric behaviour of the magnetic materials is critical especially when broadband applications are concerned. The objective of this thesis is to develop techniques to characterizing materials deposed by inkjet process.

Les matériaux de structure pérovskite de formule générale ABO3 sont les ferroélectriques les plus étudiés pour leurs propriétés intéressantes dans de nombreuses applications technologiques. Cependant leurs propriétés sont directement reliées à la structure et sont fortement conditionnées par les transitions de phases qui dépendent de la température, de la composition chimique et de la pression. Dans le manuscrit de thèse, le comportement sous haute pression de deux matériaux pérovskite SrTi1-xZrxO3 (STZ) et KNb1-XTaXO3 (KNT) est étudié et différentes techniques de frittage pour améliorer la densité des céramiques et optimiser les propriétés ferroélectriques des céramiques K(Nb0.40Ta0.60)O3 et (KxNa1-x)Nb0.6Ta0.4O3 sont examinées.Des analyses sous hautes pressions par spectroscopie Raman et diffraction des rayons X des poudres de SrTi1-xZrxO3 (x= 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7) et KNb1-XTaXO3 (x=0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.9) en enclume diamant ont été réalisées. Les spectres Raman montrent une augmentation des modes Raman avec la pression pour les poudres de STZ indiquant que la pression induit des transitions de phases vers des symétries plus basses de la maille dans ces composés.De plus, les expériences de spectroscopie Raman ont fait apparaître une décroissance des modes Raman lorsque la pression est augmentée, montrant bien que la pression induit des transitions de phases vers des structure plus symétriques. L'évolution du mode Raman principal pour les phases orthorhombique et quadratique a été suivi jusqu'à ce que la phase cubique apparaîsse, ce qui nous a permis de proposer un diagramme de phase pression-composition pour les composés KNT.Trois différentes techniques de frittage, utilisation d'additifs, frittage en deux paliers et SPS ont été étudiées pour les céramiques de K(Nb0.4Ta0.6)O3 et (KxNa1-x)Nb0.6Ta0.4O3 . La constante diélectrique et les pertes en fonction de la température des céramiques ont été améliorées par l'utilisation du KF comme additif de frittage et par le frittage en deux paliers. Les échantillons densifiés par SPS présentent une microstructure fine et possèdent les plus fortes densités. Ils ont les meilleurs propriétés ferroélectriques. Aucun changement significatif de la température de Curie ne semble être induit par le taux de Na, et on observe cependant une augmentation de la constante diélectrique et des propriétés ferroélectriques suivant le taux de Na. / Perovskite materials whose general chemical formula is ABO3 are one of the most study ferroelectrics due to the interesting properties that they have for technological applications. However, their properties are directly related to structural phase transitions that could depend of temperature, composition and pressure. In the studies presented here, we first examined the high-pressure behavior of two perovskite materials SrTi1-xZrxO3 (STZ) and KNb1-XTaXO3 (KNT), and we later continued to investigate different sintering techniques in order to improve the densification, dielectric and ferroelectric properties of K(Nb0.40Ta0.60)O3 and (KxNa1-x)Nb0.6Ta0.4O3 ceramics.High-pressure Raman scattering and X-ray diffraction investigations of SrTi1-xZrxO3 (x= 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7) and KNb1-XTaXO3 (x=0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.9) powders were conducted in diamond anvil cells. Raman scattering experiments showed and increased of Raman modes with pressure for the STZ samples, which indicates that pressure induced phase transitions towards lower symmetry for these compounds.Moreover, high pressure Raman spectroscopy experiments showed a decrease of the Raman modes as the pressure was increased for the KNT samples, showing that pressure induced phase transitions towards higher symmetries. The evolution of the main Raman modes for the orthorhombic and tetragonal phases were followed until the cubic phase was reach, and allowed us to propose a pressure-composition phase diagram for the KNT compounds.Three different sintering techniques, sintered aids, two step sintering and spark plasma sintering, were used on K(Nb0.4Ta0.6)O3 and (KxNa1-x)Nb0.6Ta0.4O3 ceramics. The use of KF as sintered aid and the two step sintering method showed an improvement of the dielectric constant and dielectric losses of these samples. SPS samples presented a fine microstructure with the highest density and the best ferroelectric behavior. We did not detect any changes on the Curie temperature due the amount of Na but and increase of the dielectric constant and the ferroelectric properties was observed due to the amount of Na.

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