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This thesis aims to investigate whether shopping is still a gendered activity in the 21st century. Past research in a number of social science disciplines with a focus on consumer affairs indicated that traditionally shopping was part of the woman’s domain and therefore it was seen as an activity only women engaged in. More current research has however suggested that shopping is no longer just a female activity, and asked for more research to be conducted into both male and female consumer behaviour. The present thesis focuses on recreational shopping and attempts to address the issue of male and female consumer behaviour by means of a multi-method approach. Chapter 1 summarises the background literature and provides the rationale for the research conducted in this thesis. Chapter 2 focuses on the methodological issues relating to the present studies provides a justification of each methodological approach used. Chapters 3 to 6 present the empirical work carried out for this thesis and Chapter 7 presents the conclusions drawn from the research carried out. In Chapter 3 we present an investigation of participants’ (27 men and 71 women) written accounts of past (good and bad) and ideal shopping experiences using thematic analysis. The findings show that women report higher overall shopping enjoyment than men, which is in agreement with previous research results. However, men and women describe similar obstacles and negative experiences that deter them from participating or wanting to participate in shopping activities, and they exhibit similar motivations when thinking about shopping. In contrast, all descriptions of ideal shopping experiences were highly idiosyncratic. The study presented in Chapter 4 explores the relationship between product involvement and shopping enjoyment. One hundred and seventy-four participants (69 men and 102 women) responded to an online questionnaire, which measured attitudes towards shopping in general and shopping in a high involvement situation. As in the previous study, the results showed that overall women reported much higher general shopping enjoyment than men. But when product involvement was high men reported a more positive attitude toward shopping than when just rating shopping in general. This suggests that the issue of gender differences in shopping enjoyment needed to be investigated further and that a more fine-grained approach to research in this area was required to explore the differences and similarities in the way that men and women approach this activity. In Chapter 5 we investigate potential differences and similarities in men and women’s conceptions of shopping. The first study in this chapter asked participants to list types of shopping or shopping activities as they came to mind and the second study utilised a free-sort task. Surprisingly, the results from the Chi-Square analysis of Study 3 and EXTREE and INDSCAL analysis of Study 4 showed that there are very few significant differences in how men and women view shopping. Thus, it seems both sexes appear to think about shopping in very similar (if not the same) ways. In order to address this question in more depth, the study presented in Chapter 6 took a different methodological approach. Here, a focus group study was carried out to explore what lies behind men and women’s conceptions of shopping. Three groups (N=19) of first year undergraduate students participated in focus groups and discussed what they thought and felt about shopping. Results showed that perceptions of what shopping is are very strong even amongst this group of young consumers. Finally, the results are reviewed in Chapter 7 together with their implications, limitations of the present research and possible future directions.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Kinesiology / Craig A. Harms / The overall aim of this dissertation is to further understand sex differences in the cardiopulmonary responses during exercise in younger and older individuals. Emphasis is directed towards the influence of sex in modulating respiratory muscle blood flow and the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex. The first investigation of this dissertation (Chapter 2) demonstrated that sex differences do not alter respiratory muscle blood flow at rest or during exercise. The second investigation (Chapter 3) demonstrated that sex differences exist in the cardiovascular consequences of the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex. Specifically, premenopausal women, compared to age-matched men, exhibited attenuated increases in mean arterial pressure and limb vascular resistance as well as decreases in limb blood flow during inspiratory muscle metaboreflex activation. In Chapter 4, we demonstrated that postmenopausal, compared to pre-menopausal, women exhibit greater increases in mean arterial pressure and limb vascular resistance and decreases in limb blood flow during activation of the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex. Furthermore, no differences in the cardiovascular consequences were present between older men and women or younger and older men with activation of the inspiratory muscle metaboreflex. These data suggest that the tonically active inspiratory muscle metaboreflex present during maximal exercise will result in less blood flow redistribution away from the locomotor muscles in pre-menopausal women compared to postmenopausal women, as well as younger and older men. In conclusion, sex differences in young adults incur a major impact in the cardiovascular consequences during inspiratory muscle metaboreflex activation, while not modifying respiratory muscle blood flow.

ABSTRACT Introduction South Africa is estimated to have the largest number of HIV infected adults in Southern Africa with a higher HIV prevalence in females compared to males. While significant reductions in morbidity and mortality due to HIV and AIDS have been realized for over a decade internationally, HIV treatment involving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is still a relatively new phenomenon in this country and gender differences in HIV outcomes between males and females in South Africa have not been previously well described. This study aimed to determine and describe gender differences in clinical and immunological outcomes in a population of HIV infected South African adults initiated on HAART. Materials and Methods This retrospective data analysis reviewed 6,617 HIV-infected adultsABSTRACT Introduction South Africa is estimated to have the largest number of HIV infected adults in Southern Africa with a higher HIV prevalence in females compared to males. While significant reductions in morbidity and mortality due to HIV and AIDS have been realized for over a decade internationally, HIV treatment involving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is still a relatively new phenomenon in this country and gender differences in HIV outcomes between males and females in South Africa have not been previously well described. This study aimed to determine and describe gender differences in clinical and immunological outcomes in a population of HIV infected South African adults initiated on HAART. Materials and Methods This retrospective data analysis reviewed 6,617 HIV-infected adults initiated on HAART at the Themba Lethu Clinic, an urban public-sector antiretroviral rollout facility in Johannesburg, South Africa between 1st April 2004 and 31st March 2007. Clinical data from these antiretroviral naïve patients was analysed for gender differences in mortality, rates of loss to follow up, CD4 cell count response, virologic suppression and weight gain. Cox regression models and logistic regression models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and odds ratios (OR), respectively, for associations between gender and outcomes. Models were adjusted for age and baseline CD4 count. Results At baseline, 4,388 (66.3%) women were significantly younger (p<0.0001) and less likely to be employed than the 2,229 (33.7%) men (p<0.001). Furthermore, women had significantly higher baseline CD4 counts (p<0.0001) and higher body mass index (BMI) (p<0.0001). Males experienced significantly reduced survival compared to females (p=0.0053) by Kaplan-Meier analysis. In adjusted multivariate analysis, men were 22% more likely to die or become lost to follow up than women [HR = 1.22 (95% CI 1.06 - 1.39]. The period with the highest risk of mortality or loss to follow up was within six months of starting HAART. Female gender was associated with better CD4 count response. In multivariate analysis adjusted for age and baseline CD4 count, women were 35% more likely to achieve a 100 cell increase in CD4 count at four months after initiation of HAART [OR =1.35 (95% CI = 1.19 -1.54)] and 45% more likely to increase their CD4 counts by 100 cells/mm3 after ten months on HAART [OR =1.42 (95% CI = 1.20 -1.68)] when compared to men. Women were also more likely to achieve virologic suppression at ten months post HAART initiation [OR =1.54 (95% CI =1.21-1.97)] and were more likely to have gained weight after four months on treatment than males [OR = 1.26 (95% CI = 1.07–1.49)] after adjusting for age, baseline CD4 count and baseline BMI. Conclusions Women had significant advantages over men in terms of short-term clinical and immunological outcomes. Earlier access treatment for men should be facilitated and adherence should be promoted once on treatment. Further research is required to determine if these gender differences persist during long-term HAART.

Lee Ka-man. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2000. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 80-88). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Members of Thesis Committee --- p.ii / Abstract --- p.iii / Chinese Abstract --- p.v / Acknowledgements --- p.vii / Table of Contents --- p.ix / List of Tables --- p.xi / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction to the Research Question --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Introduction / Chapter 1.2 --- Life Course Perspective / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Basic Principles of the Life Course Perspective / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Timings of life events / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Cohort Analysis to Study Social Change / Chapter 1.3. --- Determinants of Family Timing / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Analytical framework --- p.11 / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction / Chapter 2.2 --- Gender Comparison / Chapter 2.3 --- Cohort Comparison / Chapter 2.4 --- Determinants of Family Timings / Chapter 2.4.1 --- The Extension of Education / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Work Career Development / Chapter 2.4.3 --- Migration History / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Family Formation in a Changing Social Context --- p.28 / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction / Chapter 3.2 --- Migration Experiences / Chapter 3.3 --- Education Expansion / Chapter 3.4 --- Increased Labour Force Participation / Chapter 3.5 --- First Marriage / Chapter 3.6 --- First Birth / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Data and Method --- p.43 / Chapter 4.1 --- Data and Measures / Chapter 4.2 --- Method / Chapter Chapter 5 --- First Marriage --- p.53 / Chapter 5.1 --- Introduction / Chapter 5.2 --- Gender Comparison / Chapter 5.3 --- Cohort Comparison / Chapter 5.4 --- Summary / Chapter Chapter 6 --- First Birth --- p.62 / Chapter 6.1 --- Introduction / Chapter 6.2 --- Transition to Parenthood since Age15 / Chapter 6.2.1 --- Gender Comparison / Chapter 6.2.2 --- Cohort Comparison / Chapter 6.3 --- Transition into First birth since Marriage / Chapter 6.3.1 --- Gender Comparison / Chapter 6.3.2 --- Cohort Comparison / Chapter 6.4 --- Summary / Chapter Chapter 7 --- Discussion and Conclusion --- p.72 / Chapter 7.1 --- Research Questions / Chapter 7.2 --- Key Findings / Chapter 7.3 --- Limitations / Chapter 7.4 --- Implications for Future Studies / Chapter 7.4.1 --- Sibling Order and Number of Sibling / Chapter 7.4.2 --- Parents' Educational Attainment and Occupational Status / Chapter 7.4.3 --- Residential Arrangement / Bibliography --- p.80

In Year 9, when boys and girls are expected to make choices regarding what they want to become when they grow up, many take a crucial decision to drop or side-line IT as an academic subject, which in turn steers them away from a possible future IT career. This thesis examines the reasons why IT careers are not well-imagined or popular amongst teenagers at this critical time of their lives. Taking the widely acknowledged ‘women in IT' problem as a starting point, it focuses specifically on gender differences that exist in relation to how teenagers form their ideas about IT as an academic subject, as a possible career and in everyday life. 79 boys and 85 girls participated in this study from a mixture of 12 state-maintained and nine independent secondary schools (single-sex and co-educational) in Southeast London Borough. This research was exploratory and used an age-appropriate, participatory and mixed-methods framework incorporating: a questionnaire, a creativity map exercise, group and individual interviews, mini-focus groups, and observations. During the interviews, students were also provided with information and opportunities regarding IT careers. I argue this has been of benefit to the students as well as the research, as it has prompted them to think about a career they previously had not even considered. The findings of my study indicate boys were more likely than girls to say that they liked and enjoyed IT/ICT1 as a subject and would consider IT as a career choice for the future. Evidence throughout the study does not suggest girls lack confidence with regard to their general engagement with and use of technology, compared to the boys. Rather, the findings suggest more needs to be done in the area of role models, mentors and careers advice to inform more girls (and boys) about IT careers. The thesis concludes with recommendations for further research, especially in light of the new computing curriculum, which commenced in September 2014.

Typescript (photocopy). / Digitized by Kansas Correctional Industries

<p>In this paper an upper level compulsory school is examined from a gender perspective. The purpose of the paper is to analyse how girls and boys acquire space in the classroom (during a Swedish lesson) and in the sports hall (during a lesson in physical education). To fullfil the purpose of this paper a seventh grade class was observed during a lesson in Swedish as well as in sports. In addition to this on pupil was interviewed. </p><p>In this paper the results are compared to and measured against results from earlier research in the field. Used as a theoretical basis are Simone de Beauvoir’s theories on gender.</p><p>The results attained indicate that girls and boys claims space in different ways during time in the classroom as well as in the sports hall. Boys are the ones acquiring the largest space. They talk out loud more often and they have more possession of the ball during ball games. Furthermore the girls ask for the word less often than the boys.</p><p> </p>

Infidelity in romantic relationships can be devastating, and can cause many complex emotional reactions. The Jealousy as a Specific Innate Module (JSIM) hypothesis posits that due to differing reproductive pressures over evolutionary history, men and women have evolved different mechanisms to respond to infidelity. JSIM proposes that men, due to fears of cuckoldry, will respond with intense jealousy to a partner's sexual infidelity. It proposes that women, who are certain of their maternity but may suffer severe consequences if their mate falls in love with another and diverts his resources elsewhere, will respond with intense jealousy to emotional infidelity. These gender effects were examined in a study of participants who had recently been cheated on sexually, emotionally, or both, by romantic partners. Distress, forgiveness, and couple identity were measured. Results among actual victims of infidelity failed to support the JSIM hypotheses. Men and women responded with similar levels of distress to both types of infidelity. Both men and women were less forgiving as sexual infidelity severity increased, yet the severity of sexual infidelity was associated positively and significantly with less forgiveness for women, and it was associated less positively and non-significantly with less forgiveness for men. Men reported more couple identity after infidelity than did women. In a larger sample that used hypothetical scenarios, it was found that men responded with more upset to sexual infidelity and women responded with more upset to emotional infidelity when using a forced choice method.