The definition of specific learning disabilities (SLD) and the methods used to identify SLD have been evolving since the 1970s. There have been five studies since 1970 that have focused on the SLD definition that states used and the SLD identification methods. The purpose of this study was to obtain updated information regarding the current prevalence rates of SLD, current SLD definitions, and current methods being used for the identification of SLD across the United States. After examining the regulations and procedures of each state, this study found that all fifty states have adopted the federal definition of SLD that was provided in IDEA 2004. As specified in that definition, all 50 states now allow the response to intervention model as a method for identifying SLD. Eleven states solely use the response to intervention model while the rest allow other methods of identifying SLD, specifically the severe discrepancy model or the pattern of strengths and weaknesses model. Overall, there has been a slight, but statistically significant decrease in the SLD prevalence rates since the response to intervention model has been in place.

Background: People with physical and intellectual disabilities have varying health needs and living arrangements. They depend on their carers for their daily oral hygiene care. Objectives: 1. To describe the dental practices and oral health among people aged 18–44 years with physical and intellectual disabilities and 2. To determine if residential setting is associated with care recipients’ oral health status, or if there are other factors, which if modified, could improve the oral health of adults with physical and intellectual disabilities. Methods: Cross-sectional mailed questionnaire survey (February 2005 – June 2006) of carers of adults with physical and intellectual disabilities (18–44 years) living in South Australia in three settings: family home; community housing; and institutions, followed by oral examinations of care recipients by trained examiners at recalls or new appointments. Decayed (D), missing (M) and filled (F) teeth (DMFT), tooth wear, oral hygiene and gingival status were recorded. Results: Carers completed the questionnaire for 485 adults, a yield of 37.9%, of which 267 care recipients were examined (completion rate = 55.1%). Some 47.4% of the care recipients lived in family homes, 31.4% in community housing and 21.2% in institutions. Some 39.3% of care recipients had their teeth brushed once a day or less, with most needing assistance from their carers. Infrequent toothbrushing and inadequate time to clean were more frequently reported by carers at family homes than those at other settings (P<0.001). Care recipients at institutions visited the dentist more frequently than those at other settings (P<0.001). Other care recipients had problems accessing dental care due to their carers’ lack of awareness of dental services available, lack of dentists with adequate skills in managing people with disabilities, cost, location of dental clinic, lack of dentists willing to treat people with disabilities and transportation problems. Some 18.8% of care recipients required a general anaesthetic and 13.1% an oral sedation for oral examination and treatment. Presence of both oral health problems and treatment needs were reported by almost 50% of carers, but only 13.5% of care recipients reportedly experienced one or more negative impacts. Oral examinations showed that the prevalence of untreated decay among the care recipients in South Australia was 16.9% (95% CI= 12.7, 21.7) and 76.3% (95% CI= 71.0, 81.2) had past and present caries experience. None of the examined subjects wore a removable prosthesis, although nearly 50% had one or more missing teeth. After adjusting for carer and care recipient characteristics, multivariate analysis showed that there was no difference (P>0.05) in the prevalence of untreated decay (D>0) missing teeth (M>0), filled teeth (F>0), caries experience (DMFT>0) or mean DMFT among the three residential settings. However, untreated decay was significantly associated with moderate [OR= 3.7 (1.2, 11.4)] and high intake [OR= 3.3 (1.1, 11.1)] of sweet drinks and never visiting the dentist or visiting only because of a problem [OR= 5.2 (1.7, 15.8)]; missing teeth were significantly associated with requirement for a general anaesthetic for dental treatment [OR= 3.2 (1.4, 7.2)] and having low [OR= 3.4 (1.1, 10.3)] and high [OR= 4.2 (1.7, 10.7)] weekly hours of care; filled teeth were significantly associated with 35–44 age-group [OR= 5.4 (2.0, 14.9)], lack of oral hygiene assistance from carers [OR= 5.1 (2.2, 11.8)] and high weekly hours of care [OR= 4.4 (2.0, 9.5)]; and caries prevalence was significantly associated with 35–44 age-group [OR= 7.3 (2.0, 26.3)], lack of oral hygiene assistance from carers [OR= 4.0 (1.3, 12.5)] and high weekly hours of care [OR= 6.3 (2.5, 15.9)]. Mean DMFT was significantly associated with 35–44 age-group [β= 3.0 (0.4, 5.6)], autism [β = 3.4 (1.3, 5.8)], intellectual disability [β = 2.5 (0.3, 4.8)], and high weekly hours of care [β = 3.6 (1.6, 5.6)]. Anterior tooth wear was found in 45.1% (95% CI= 36.1, 53.9) and posterior tooth wear in 23.9% (95% CI= 18.7, 29.0) of care recipients. Care recipients in the community were more likely to have posterior tooth wear compared to those in family homes. Anterior tooth wear was significantly associated with 25–34 age-group [OR= 3.1 (1.5, 6.5)], 35–44 age-group [OR= 2.6 (1.1, 6.2)] and rumination [OR= 3.4 (1.3, 9.2)]. Oral hygiene and gingival status were poor with the prevalence of extensive plaque (dental plaque on all surfaces of the tooth, with a score of 2 or more) of 40.0% (95% CI= 34.1, 45.9), extensive calculus (moderate to abundant amount of supra and subgingival calculus, with a score of 2 or more) of 41.9% (95% CI= 36.0, 47.8), and extensive gingivitis (gingivitis extending all around the tooth, with a score of 2 or more) of 36.0% (95% CI= 30.2, 41.8). Residential setting was not associated with oral hygiene and gingival status. Extensive plaque was significantly associated with 35–44 age-group [OR= 3.9 (1.4, 11.2)], poor to fair general health [OR= 3.3 (1.2, 9.0)], habit of placing food/medicine/other products in mouth for lengthy periods of time [OR= 7.8 (2.7, 22.7)], care recipients cared for by male carers [OR= 3.9 (1.4, 10.8)], and care recipients with high weekly hours of care [OR= 4.0 (1.5, 10.8)]. Extensive calculus was significantly elevated in prevalence in the 25–34 age-group [OR= 4.3 (1.8, 10.7)], 35–44 age-group [OR= 5.3 (1.8, 15.4)]. Extensive gingivitis was significantly associated with always needing help for self-care activities from carers [OR= 3.5 (1.2, 10.2)]. Conclusions: Residential setting was not associated with caries experience, oral hygiene and gingival status among adults with disabilities, after adjustment for age and other relevant characteristics of care recipients. However, care recipients in the community were more likely to have posterior tooth wear compared to those in family homes. Emphasis should be placed on modifiable factors like carer assistance with daily oral hygiene care, diet and regular dental visits, whilst ensuring that carers are not overburdened. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-- University of Adelaide, School of Dentistry, 2008

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 1982. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 185-198). Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the metacognitive functioning of students with learning disabilities (LD), low-achieving (LA) students, and average-achieving (AA) students within the context of math problem solving. Metacognition, that is, the awareness individuals have regarding their own mental processes and ability to self-regulate performance, is an important predictor of learning. Deficits in metacognition have been attributed to an inability to effectively balance the cognitive and metacognitive strategies necessary for successful problem solving. Students with LD have considerable difficulty with self-regulation. This study investigates three components of metacognition: metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experience, and metacognitive skills. The differences in these components among students with LD (n = 15), LA students (n = 38), and AA students (n = 29) and their influence on students' math word problem solving was studied. Furthermore, the relationships among the three components of metacognition were investigated in the context of ability group differences. To assess metacognitive functioning, students were administered a structured interview and a survey and they solved three math word problems while thinking aloud. Additionally, to assess math problem-solving ability, students were administered a 10-item math word problem-solving test. Results indicated that students with LD demonstrated a different pattern of metacognitive function than AA students and LA students. Students across ability groups look relatively equivalent in the quantity of metacognitive skills. However, when discriminating between the type and quality of the metacognitive skills employed, ability group differences were evident. Ability group differences in metacognitive functioning emerged with respect to problem difficulty. The directions of the relationships among the components of metacognition were the same across ability groups. However, the magnitude and strength of the relationships differed by ability. Additionally, metacognitive knowledge was a significant predictor of math word problem-solving performance for AA students, but not for the other ability groups. Furthermore, there was a significant difference in the relationship between metacognitive experience and math word problem solving for students with LD and AA students. Educational implications are discussed for teaching students to use metacognition during problem solving.

Scientific discovery is at the heart of solving many of the problems facing contemporary society. Scientists are retiring at rates that exceed the numbers of new scientists. Unfortunately, scientific careers still appear to be outside the reach of most individuals with learning disabilities. The purpose of this research was to better understand the methods by which successful learning disabled scientists have overcome the barriers and challenges associated with their learning disabilities in their preparation and performance as scientists. This narrative inquiry involved the researcher writing the life stories of four scientists. These life stories were generated from extensive interviews in which each of the scientists recounted their life histories. The researcher used narrative analysis to “make sense” of these learning disabled scientists’ life stories. The narrative analysis required the researcher to identify and describe emergent themes characterizing each scientist’s life. A cross-case analysis was then performed to uncover commonalities and differences in the lives of these four individuals. Results of the cross-case analysis revealed that all four scientists had a passion for science that emerged at an early age, which, with strong drive and determination, drove these individuals to succeed in spite of the many obstacles arising from their learning disabilities. The analysis also revealed that these scientists chose careers based on their strengths; they actively sought mentors to guide them in their preparation as scientists; and they developed coping techniques to overcome difficulties and succeed. The cross-case analysis also revealed differences in the degree to which each scientist accepted his or her learning disability. While some demonstrated inferior feelings about their successes as scientists, still other individuals revealed feelings of having superior abilities in areas such as visualization and working with people. These individuals revealed beliefs that they developed these special abilities as a result of their learning differences, which made them better than their non-learning disabled peers in certain areas. Finally, the researcher discusses implications of these findings in the light of special accommodations that can be made by teachers, school counselors, and parents to encourage learning disabled children who demonstrate interest in becoming scientists.

In China, services provided to children with disabilities are mostly assuming by government. After 1978 reform, the government began to transfer certain functions of welfare providing to non-governmental organizations. Then, many popular NGOs emerged to provide services to children with disabilities. However, after a few years operating, many of these popular NGOsclosed down. The aim of this research is to explore the dilemma of popular NGOs which providing services to children with disabilities to gain further development and what are reasons of these barriers.To achieve the aim, findings that conducted from two typical model popular NGO --- Chunmiao and XZXY will be applied to examine what barriers do popular NGOs which working with children with disabilities have and analyze what arereasons of these barriers, Anheier‟s Organizational Life Cycle and Greiner‟s Model of Organizational Growth will be used during the process. Findings show that popular NGOs which providingservices to children with disabilities have limited autonomy, low social awareness, inefficient internal management system and theyarerestricted by the government. Popular NGOs working with children with disabilities in China need to find a neutral position between strong government control and the autonomyofnon-governmental organizations.

Reading Disabilities (RD) and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are common neurodevelopmental disorders with evidence for shared genetic etiology. This study examined four predicted neuronal migration genes in RD (DCDC2, KIAA0319, DCDC2B and NEDD4L), and three of these genes in ADHD (DCDC2, DCDC2B and NEDD4L). Putative regulatory elements of DCDC2 (6p) and KIAA0319 (6p) were screened to identify functional risk variants that explain previous association findings. No statistically significant associations were observed in DCDC2. In KIAA0319, variants with predicted regulatory function showed association with RD. This supports the hypothesis that causal RD risk variants in KIAA0319 alter gene expression. DCDC2B (1p), the homolog of DCDC2, showed suggestive evidence for association to ADHD, but not RD. Previous association findings in NEDD4L (18q) could not be replicated. No pleiotropic gene for RD and ADHD was identified. However, together with previous findings, this study supports that neuronal migration may be a common underlying deficit in both RD and ADHD.

The term learning disabilities inherently suggests an inability to perform adequately certain academic tasks, and children who have been identified as having a learning disability may struggle with feelings of inadequacy. Perceived academic inadequacies may be related to a lowered concept of self and social stigmatization by peers. In addition, children with learning disabilities may have beliefs about spelling and reading, and learning in general, that engender a negative self-concept. Although extensive research has been conducted with regard to the issues of self-concept and learning disabilities, results have been inconsistent. Further, the interrelationships that may exist among learning disabilities, self-concept, and general spelling, reading, and epistemological beliefs have yet to be established. The current study investigated the interrelationships among written language ability, selfconcept, general spelling beliefs, reading beliefs, and epistemological beliefs. Fifty-six sixthgraders, 21 with learning disabilities and 35 with typical development, were administered a series of tasks that assessed spelling performance, word-level reading performance, self-concept, spelling beliefs, reading beliefs, and epistemological beliefs. Results of the analyses indicated that students with learning disabilities received spelling, word-level reading, and academic selfconcept scores that were significantly lower than their typically developing peers. Reading and epistemological beliefs were found to account for a portion of the variance between the ability groups. The significance of these results, including implications for instructional and intervention practices, are discussed. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Wichita State University, College of Health Professions, Dept. of Communication Sciences and Disorders. / "July 2006."

Reading Disabilities (RD) and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are common neurodevelopmental disorders with evidence for shared genetic etiology. This study examined four predicted neuronal migration genes in RD (DCDC2, KIAA0319, DCDC2B and NEDD4L), and three of these genes in ADHD (DCDC2, DCDC2B and NEDD4L). Putative regulatory elements of DCDC2 (6p) and KIAA0319 (6p) were screened to identify functional risk variants that explain previous association findings. No statistically significant associations were observed in DCDC2. In KIAA0319, variants with predicted regulatory function showed association with RD. This supports the hypothesis that causal RD risk variants in KIAA0319 alter gene expression. DCDC2B (1p), the homolog of DCDC2, showed suggestive evidence for association to ADHD, but not RD. Previous association findings in NEDD4L (18q) could not be replicated. No pleiotropic gene for RD and ADHD was identified. However, together with previous findings, this study supports that neuronal migration may be a common underlying deficit in both RD and ADHD.

The purpose of the study was to determine if the perceptions which children have of physically disabled individuals can be altered through the use of a bibliotherapeutic intervention program. More specifically, the procedure employed was the oral reading of selected fiction books to fourth and fifth grade students by their classroom teacher.The experimental design of the study compared six groups (a total of sixteen classrooms) using pretest/posttest measures:Experimental Group I and Control Group I each consisted of three intact classrooms in which there were no physically disabled students.Experimental Group II and Control Group II each consisted of three intact classrooms into which one physically disabled student had been integrated.Experimental Group III and Control Group III each consisted of two intact classrooms in schools which contained a large proportion of physically disabled students.Bibliotherapeutic procedures were implemented in experimental classrooms. No treatment was implemented in control classrooms. Pretest and posttest measures were administered to all classrooms.The Perceptions of Disabled Persons Scale (Form A and Form B) was administered as the pretest and posttest. The instrument attempts to measure perceptions which children hold of physically disabled individuals. Each form contains thirty items, each requiring a true or false response. The span of scores on the scale ranged from 0 (extremely negative perceptions) to 180 (extremely positive perceptions).The procedures followed by the classroom teachers using the experimental program were explicitly described in a handbook provided for each of them. This information was reinforced by several personal meetings and discussions between the teachers and the experimenter. The experimental treatment was conducted during a five month period.The data gathered on Form A of the PDP were analyzed with a one-way analysis of variance to determine if there were initial differences among groups. Differences were found, and an analysis of covariance was used on the Form B data, adjusting scores on the basis of Form A scores, to identify any differences between groups receiving the treatment and those not receiving the treatment.A questionnaire was provided for all teachers using the bibliotherapy program. The responses on the questionnaire were informally analyzed in order to gain further information on the effects of the program.The two hypotheses tested by the study were:Hypothesis 1. There is no significant difference between the mean posttest scores of fourth and fifth grade students experiencing an experimental bibliotherapy intervention program and groups of fourth and fifth grade students not experiencing the experimental intervention.Hypothesis 2. There are no significant differences among the mean posttest scores taken from the Perceptions of Disabled Persons, scale for the three groupings of fourth and fifth grade students: classrooms having no physically disabled students, classrooms with one physically disabled student, classrooms in schools with a large proportion of physically disabled students.Subject to the limitations of the study, the following conclusions were reached:1. Based only on statistical findings, bibliotherapy, as defined in the study, did not alter the perceptions which nondisabled children have of physically disabled individuals. Although the statistical analysis did not find a significant difference between groups, all of the teachers involved in the bibliotherapy program felt that the program was useful, enjoyable, and had positive effects on the attitudes of their students.2. Differences do exist among the perceptions which children manifest of physically disabled individuals when the extent of exposure to individuals with physical disabilities varies within educational environments. Nondisabled children who had been exposed to many physically disabled students throughout their school years had significantly more positive perceptions of the disabled than did those students who had no disabled children in their school environments.