An important part of automobile safety is the braking system. Disc brakes have been widely used in automobiles for sped retardation for over 30 years. During that time, they have developed from a simple disc to a complex disc with channels, vanes, holes and grooves. The stopping capability of disc brakes is affected by the rate at which heat is dissipated by forced convection and the thermal capacity of the rotor. Catastrophic failure of brake rotors can occur during rapid increases or decreases in rotor temperature where regions of high temperature gradients result in high thermal strains. There is little information in the public domain regarding the relative merits of different disc brake rotor geometries, particularly in terms of airflow patterns, heat transfer rates, and internal thermal gradients. The aim of this research project was to investigate how geometrical variations affect the thermal performance of bi-directional disc brake rotors, particularly for high performance applications. Dynamometer testing showed that respectable increases in braking performance are achievable with relatively simple machining modifications. Tuft and smoke visualization techniques provided a preliminary understanding of the airflow in the passages of three distinct bi-directional rotor designs. Particle Image Velocimetry was used for detailed flow measurements which supported the numerical simulations. Computational Fluid Dynamics was used to predict the airflow and heat transfer associated with eight bi-directional brake rotor designs. The results show that 'pillared' passage designs can achieve higher heat transfer rates than traditional straight radial vane designs and that the heat loss from pillared rotors is generally more uniform than from vaned rotors. Subsequent conjugate heat transfer simulations found that temperature gradients inside pillared rotors are typically lower than inside vaned rotors. Thus failure rates due to excessive thermal strain are expected to be lower for pillared rotors. It was shown that rotor selection based solely on heat transfer rates is inappropriate and different passage designs are suited to different applications. The findings of this research will directly benefit local disc brake manufacturers, who do not have resources to conduct thorough studies comparing the thermal characteristics of different brake rotor designs.

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During braking, both the rotor and the pads in disc brakes are worn. Since disc brakes are not sealed, some of the wear particles generated can become airborne. Several studies have found an association between adverse health effects and the concentration of particles in the atmosphere, so it is of interest to improve our knowledge of the airborne wear particles generated by disc brakes. However, in field tests it is difficult to distinguish these particles from others in the surrounding environment, so it may be preferable to use laboratory test stands and/or simulation models to study the amount of airborne wear particles generated. This thesis deals with a simulation methodology for prediction of airborne wear particles from disc brakes and three experimental methods for testing disc brake materials with focus on airborne wear particles. The four appended papers discuss the possibility to both measure and predict the number and size distribution of airborne wear particles that originate from the pad to rotor contact. The objective is to develop a simulation methodology that predicts the number and size distribution of airborne wear particles from disc brakes. Paper A describes how a modified pin-on-disc machine was used to study airborne wear particles originating from different disc brake materials. The results indicate that the test setup can be used to measure and rank the number concentration and size distribution of the airborne wear particles generated. Paper B describes a disc brake assembly test stand for measurements of airborne wear particles from disc brakes. The results indicate that the test setup can be used to measure the number concentration and size distribution of airborne wear particles generated from disc brake materials. The results also indicate a promising ability to rank different pad/rotor material combinations with respect to the number concentration of airborne wear particles. Paper C compares measurements made in passenger car field tests with measurements made in a disc brake assembly test stand and in a pin-on-disc machine. A promising correlation between the three different test methods is found. Paper D presents a simulation methodology for predicting the number and size distribution of airborne wear particles using finite element analysis (FEA). The simulated number distribution is compared with experimental measurements at component level. The result indicates that the proposed methodology may be used to predict the number concentration and size distribution of airborne particles generated in the pad-to-rotor contact.

No / There are several types of disc brake instabilities associated with the brake systems; however, they are usually classified into two main categories depending on the frequency range: brake groan 0–300 Hz and brake squeal 1– 16 kHz. The groan is associated with the stick-slip motion while the squeal is associated with the modal coupling. This paper presents a detailed analysis of low frequency noise (0–300 Hz) in a commercial vehicle trailer disc brake as a result of stick-slip vibration. A range of experimental techniques are used to understand the characteristic behaviour of the caliper and the brake pads during braking events on a laboratory test rig. The analysed brake system comprised a full disc brake assembly and the trailer suspension system with a beam axle. Laser-based optical displacement sensors were used to investigate the deformation of the caliper body and the brake pads during a braking application. The contact pressure distribution at the disc/pad interfaces were also measured to gain more insight into the contact profile of the pad surfaces. Results revealed that the stick-slip phenomenon, in this study, was a result of the combination of the deformation of the caliper and the friction material formulation of the brake pads. In addition, it was observed through the testing of two different sets of pads that a low compression modulus would help to reduce the stick-slip phenomenon.

no / Given that most of the working life of a brake pad life is spent in the bedded condition, it is important to examine the conditions of a fully bedded contact interface. An experimental and a numerical method are combined. Contact pressure and its effects (heat generation/partition and temperature rise) for the drag braking process with and without bedding are compared. The real contact area is also measured and found to be increased for the bedded interface. This results to the contact pressure being ¿more¿ evenly distributed than before. Spreading the contact pressure also results in increasing the total heat transfer between the disc and pad since now more heat can be transferred from the pad (where it is generated) to the disc. It is concluded that in order to have a reliable simulation it is recommended that the bedding-in effects are introduced in the simulations. / IMechE, RAE Travel Grant

<p>During braking, both the rotor and the pads in disc brakes are worn. Since disc brakes are not sealed, some of the wear particles generated can become airborne. Several studies have found an association between adverse health effects and the concentration of particles in the atmosphere, so it is of interest to improve our knowledge of the airborne wear particles generated by disc brakes. However, in field tests it is difficult to distinguish these particles from others in the surrounding environment, so it may be preferable to use laboratory test stands and/or simulation models to study the amount of airborne wear particles generated.</p><p>This thesis deals with a simulation methodology for prediction of airborne wear particles from disc brakes and three experimental methods for testing disc brake materials with focus on airborne wear particles. The four appended papers discuss the possibility to both measure and predict the number and size distribution of airborne wear particles that originate from the pad to rotor contact. The objective is to develop a simulation methodology that predicts the number and size distribution of airborne wear particles from disc brakes.</p><p>Paper <strong>A</strong> describes how a modified pin-on-disc machine was used to study airborne wear particles originating from different disc brake materials. The results indicate that the test setup can be used to measure and rank the number concentration and size distribution of the airborne wear particles generated.</p><p>Paper <strong>B</strong> describes a disc brake assembly test stand for measurements of airborne wear particles from disc brakes. The results indicate that the test setup can be used to measure the number concentration and size distribution of airborne wear particles generated from disc brake materials. The results also indicate a promising ability to rank different pad/rotor material combinations with respect to the number concentration of airborne wear particles.</p><p>Paper <strong>C</strong> compares measurements made in passenger car field tests with measurements made in a disc brake assembly test stand and in a pin-on-disc machine. A promising correlation between the three different test methods is found.</p><p>Paper <strong>D</strong> presents a simulation methodology for predicting the number and size distribution of airborne wear particles using finite element analysis (FEA). The simulated number distribution is compared with experimental measurements at component level. The result indicates that the proposed methodology may be used to predict the number concentration and size distribution of airborne particles generated in the pad-to-rotor contact.</p>

Este trabalho apresenta um procedimento para a análise dinâmica da frenagem total de emergência de um veículo de dois eixos (4x2), considerando os efeitos do aumento da temperatura no sistema de freios. Um protótipo de ônibus urbano equipado com freios a disco foi utilizado nos ensaios em perímetro urbano e em pista de teste da TRW Automotive em Limeira- SP. O sistema de freios do veículo protótipo foi instrumentado com termopares em diversos de seus componentes, com sensores de velocidade e pressão, percorrendo um perímetro típico urbano com trânsito intenso na cidade de São Paulo. Os pontos críticos de aquecimento foram observados bem como sua tendência de aumento de temperatura no tempo. Paralelamente ao teste em perímetro urbano foi realizado um teste padrão de \"fade\" na pista da TRW Automotive, estendendo o ciclo de frenagens até se observar o aumento e estabilização da temperatura do sistema de freios. Simultaneamente aos testes de pista foi realizado um teste em dinamômetro inercial na Fras-Le, em Caxias do Sul- RS, para se obter a variação do fator de freio com a variação da temperatura do sistema de freios. Parte de um programa computacional em Matlab, que simula computacionalmente o veículo freando, foi desenvolvido, considerando os efeitos da temperatura do sistema de freios, durante frenagens totais de emergência, partindo de diferentes velocidades iniciais de frenagem. O sistema de freios em estudo mostrou-se capaz de simular a frenagem de um veículo em emergência mesmo estando em altas temperaturas, observadas no perímetro urbano. / One procedure for vehicle dynamics analysis during total emergency braking in a two axles vehicle (4x2) was showed. For this procedure the effect of increasing temperature in the brake system was considered. A bus (prototype) equipped with disc brake was used in two practical test when the bus go through: a urban rout (São Paulo city) an a TRW\'s test lane (Limeira-SP). Thermocouples were installed in several parts of the brake system as well as velocity and pressure sensors. Acquisitions of date were made during the intensive traffic of São Paulo city. Critical temperature points were observed as well as the raise temperature tendency with the time. Tests in an inertial dynamometer were also performed in Fras-Le company (Caxias do Sul- RS) to get the brake factor variation related to temperature variation of the brake system. Simulation using MatLab program to study the vehicle performance during braking was developed. In this simulation the effect of brake system temperature was considered. Two main conclusions could be obtained: MatLab model is a useful tool to study emergency braking considering the variation of brake system and the brake system studied was able to stop the vehicle in a emergency braking even under high temperature.

Hot spotting of automotive disc brakes is an undesired thermal localisation phenomenon, which is a challenge for numerical modelling in terms of both accuracy and efficiency especially for complex disc geometry. In this research, the aim was to develop a computationally efficient finite element (FE) approach for 2-piece pin-mounted ventilated disc hot spot prediction with acceptable accuracy enabling parametric studies to contribute to the knowledge of the complex mechanisms. A time reduction strategy for the simulations was established by incorporating an axisymmetric brake pad assumption with material scaling factor and the friction characteristics were defined by a user-subroutine. The computing accuracy and efficiency of this method were then verified by comparing with traditional FE models. 2D in-plane, 2D out-of-plane, and 3D models were performed to investigate the effects of ventilated disc hot spotting, radial hot spot/band migration, and hot spotting of realistic complex disc geometry respectively. Both 2D and 3D results were validated using experimental results based on a laboratory dynamometer and showed good correlation. The results suggested that adequate modelling of friction pair contact pressure distribution and the subsequent non-uniform heat generation is essential for hot spot simulation; speed was identified as the determinant for the number of hot spots, whereas hot spot temperature was determined by energy level. Furthermore, recommendations for vent design, pins, disc run-out, cooling, material selection, wear rate, pad length and loading distribution were given. Finally, hot spotting and hot band migration cause-effect chains were established based on the results and discussion.

Este trabalho apresenta um procedimento para a análise dinâmica da frenagem total de emergência de um veículo de dois eixos (4x2), considerando os efeitos do aumento da temperatura no sistema de freios. Um protótipo de ônibus urbano equipado com freios a disco foi utilizado nos ensaios em perímetro urbano e em pista de teste da TRW Automotive em Limeira- SP. O sistema de freios do veículo protótipo foi instrumentado com termopares em diversos de seus componentes, com sensores de velocidade e pressão, percorrendo um perímetro típico urbano com trânsito intenso na cidade de São Paulo. Os pontos críticos de aquecimento foram observados bem como sua tendência de aumento de temperatura no tempo. Paralelamente ao teste em perímetro urbano foi realizado um teste padrão de \"fade\" na pista da TRW Automotive, estendendo o ciclo de frenagens até se observar o aumento e estabilização da temperatura do sistema de freios. Simultaneamente aos testes de pista foi realizado um teste em dinamômetro inercial na Fras-Le, em Caxias do Sul- RS, para se obter a variação do fator de freio com a variação da temperatura do sistema de freios. Parte de um programa computacional em Matlab, que simula computacionalmente o veículo freando, foi desenvolvido, considerando os efeitos da temperatura do sistema de freios, durante frenagens totais de emergência, partindo de diferentes velocidades iniciais de frenagem. O sistema de freios em estudo mostrou-se capaz de simular a frenagem de um veículo em emergência mesmo estando em altas temperaturas, observadas no perímetro urbano. / One procedure for vehicle dynamics analysis during total emergency braking in a two axles vehicle (4x2) was showed. For this procedure the effect of increasing temperature in the brake system was considered. A bus (prototype) equipped with disc brake was used in two practical test when the bus go through: a urban rout (São Paulo city) an a TRW\'s test lane (Limeira-SP). Thermocouples were installed in several parts of the brake system as well as velocity and pressure sensors. Acquisitions of date were made during the intensive traffic of São Paulo city. Critical temperature points were observed as well as the raise temperature tendency with the time. Tests in an inertial dynamometer were also performed in Fras-Le company (Caxias do Sul- RS) to get the brake factor variation related to temperature variation of the brake system. Simulation using MatLab program to study the vehicle performance during braking was developed. In this simulation the effect of brake system temperature was considered. Two main conclusions could be obtained: MatLab model is a useful tool to study emergency braking considering the variation of brake system and the brake system studied was able to stop the vehicle in a emergency braking even under high temperature.