The present work consists of two parts: experimental study of natural ventilation in a model room and the flow associated with a source-sink pair. The first part describes the natural ventilation of a model room of size 300mmx 300mm x 300mm with water as the fluid medium. It is insulated by air gaps on the four sides and at the top. A constant heat flux of 3148W/m2 has been maintained on the bottom surface of the room. This ‘room’ is surrounded by a large exterior tank containing water. The changes in temperature of the bottom, the interior and the exterior have been measured using T-type thermocouples. There are three openings each on two opposing sides of the model room. For any experiment, only one opening on each side is kept open. Fluid enters or leaves these openings and the flow is driven entirely by buoyancy forces. Three configurations have been studied: (1) The bottom opening at the inlet side and the top opening at the outlet side are open, (2) the bottom opening at the inlet side and the middle opening at the outlet side are open, and (3) the middle opening at the inlet side and the top opening at the outlet side are open. Shadowgraph technique is used for visualization. The buoyancy causes flow to enter through the bottom opening and leave through the top opening. At the openings, buoyant jets are observed and which have higher or lower relative densities. The buoyant jet at the inlet interacts with the plumes on the heated bottom plate. From these visualizations, it appears that free convection at bottom plate will be affected by the buoyant jets at the openings and the degree to which it is affected depends on the position and size of openings and distance between inlet and outlet. The flow rate due to the natural ventilation depends on the bottom surface heat flux and the height difference between the openings. The temperatures of the floor, the interior and the exterior are calculated using a simple mathematical model (Hunt and Linden [1999]). The mathematical model assumes well mixed conditions within the room and accounts for losses at the openings. The values of temperatures obtained in the experiments are reasonably well predicted by the mathematical model. The second part of the work is concerned with the interaction of a source -sink pair. The source consists of fluid issuing out of a nozzle in the form of a jet and the sink is a pipe that is kept some distance from the source pipe. Such source -sink pairs are observed in many situations including data centers, and collection of fresh water from a large reservoir that has also a discharge of pollutants. The main parameters of the problem are source and sink flow rates, the axial and lateral separations of the source and sink, and the angle between the axes of source and sink. Of concern is the percentage of source fluid that enters the sink as a function of these parameters. The experiments have been carried in a large glass water tank. The source nozzle diameter is 6mm and the sink pipe diameter is either 10mm or 20mm. The horizontal and vertical separations and angles between these source and sink pipes are adjustable. The Reynolds numbers of the source jet is about 3200. Experiments were done with the sink flow rate equal to, lower or higher than the source flow rate. The flow was visualized using KMnO4 dye and planar Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF). The velocity fields for some cases were obtained using Particle Image Velocitymetry (PIV). To obtain the efficiency (that is percentage of source fluid entering the sink pipe), titration method is used. A small amount of hydrochloric acid (HCL) is added in the jet fluid through the overhead tank and the fluid collected at the sink is titrated with the Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as base and Phenolphthalein as the pH indicator. The main characteristics of the jet, without a sink, were measured using PIV. The velocity profiles, jet widths and volume flow rates at various axial locations were obtained and compared with results reported in the literature for similar Reynolds number jets. For 100%, 70%, 50% and 25% efficiencies or removals and for zero lateral separations, the sink flow rate is about 1.5 times the flow rate predicted on the basis of jet properties at that point in the absence of a sink. The sink flow rate to obtain a certain efficiency increase dramatically with lateral separation; for example, when the lateral separation is about one half jet width, the required sink flow rate to obtain a certain efficiency increases by about five times. The sink diameter and the angle between source and the sink axes don’t influence efficiencies as much as the lateral separation. Data from our all experiments have been consolidated in the form of correlations that can be used for design of appropriate sinks for removal of heat and pollutants.

The commercial buildings sector in the United States used 18 percent (17.93 Quads) of the U.S. primary energy in 2006. Office buildings are the largest single energy consumption category in the commercial buildings sector of the United States with annual energy consumption around 1.1 Quads. Traditional approaches used in commercial building designs are not adequate to save energy in both depth and scale. One of the most effective ways to reduce energy consumption is to improve energy performance of HVAC systems. High-performance HVAC systems and components, as well as application of renewable energy sources, were surveyed for buildings in hot and humid climates. An analysis of performance and energy saving potential estimation for selected HVAC systems in hot and humid climates was developed based on energy consumption simulation models in DOE-2.1E. A calibrated energy consumption model of an existing office building located in the hot and humid climate conditions of Texas was developed. Based on this model, the energy saving potential of the building was estimated. In addition, energy consumption simulation models were developed for a new office building, including simulation of energy saving measures that could be achieved with further improvements of HVAC system above the energy conservation codes requirements. The theoretical minimum energy consumption level for the same office building was estimated for the purpose of evaluating the whole building energy efficiency level. The theoretical minimum energy consumption model of the office building was designed to provide the same level of comfort and services to the building occupants as provided in the actual building simulation model. Finally, the energy efficiency of the building that satisfies valid energy conservation codes and the building with an improved HVAC system was estimated based on theoretically minimum energy consumption level. The analysis provided herein can be used for new building practitioners and existing building owners to evaluate energy reduction potential and the performance of innovative technologies such as dedicated outdoor air system, displacement ventilation, improved cooling system efficiency, air source heat pumps and natural gas heat pumps.

Detta examensarbete presenterar resultatet från en experimentell studie med syfte att undersöka sambandet mellan ventilation i kontor och smittspridning av luftburna virus och bakterier. Fokuset i studien har framför allt riktats mot coronaviruset och även avgränsats till att enbart studera omblandande-, och deplacerande ventilation under den experimentella delen. Studien genomfördes i ett testrum lokaliserat vid Högskolan i Gävle. Syftet för studien har varit att besvara hur exponeringen av luftburna smittämnen förändras i andningszonen när distributionen av tilluften ändras och om placering av smittkällan i sig har någon betydelse. Studien har även haft för avsikt att besvara vilken utav deplacerande eller omblandande ventilation som lämpar sig bäst vad gäller minimering av överföringssannolikheten från en smittad persons andning. För att besvara studiens frågeställningar genomfördes spårgasmätningar och parallellt med spårgasmätningarna granskades även lufthastigheter och temperaturer på flera positioner i rummet. För omblandande ventilation undersöktes två olika riktningar på tilluftsstrålen, som valdes till vertikal och horisontell. För deplacerande ventilation undersöktes två olika inblåsningstemperaturer vilka var 21,3 ˚C och 16 ˚C. Resultatet av studiens experimentella del visade att deplacerande ventilation hade en mindre överföringssannolikhet vid jämförelse med omblandande ventilation. Detta då överföringssanolikheten låg på 0,3–0,5 % för omblandande och 0,1–0,3 % för deplacerande, vilket visar att deplacerande ventilation generellt varit på en lägre nivå oavsett position av smittkällan. Att deplacerande ventilation har en mindre benägenhet att sprida infektioner vidare bland olika individer i samma rum bekräftas också av flera tidigare artiklar som studerat ämnet. Då omblandande ventilation undersöktes visade studiens experimentella del att resultatet vad gäller riktningen på tilluftstrålen hade en inverkan på överföringssannolikheten. Den vertikala tilluftstrålen påverkade forceringen mellan de termiska dockor som placerades framför varandra, vilket resulterade i en minskning på överföringssannolikheten mitt emot de två olika positionerna där de infekterade dockorna satt. För bägge ventilationssystemen - förutom vid vertikal riktning på tilluftstrålen vid omblandande ventilation - visade avståndet mellan smittkällan och frånluftsdonet ha en effekt på smittspridningen. Detta eftersom överföringssanolikheten varit lägre vid placeringen mitt emot smittkällan och diagonalt från smittkällan vilket är ett större avstånd än vad positionering bredvid smittkällan är. Vad gäller deplacerande ventilation har placeringen av smittkällan visat effekt då överföringssannolikheten varit lägre vid placering av smittkällan närmare frånluftdonet samt att det minsta avståndet från smittkällan i det fallet haft lägst överföringssannolikhet. / This thesis presents the results of an experimental study with the aim to investigate the connection between ventilation in offices and spread of airborne viruses and bacteria. The focus is on coronavirus and this thesis only investigates mixed ventilation and displacement ventilation in the experimental part. The study is done in a full scale mook up room located in Högskolan i Gävle. The aim of the study was to answer how the exposure of airborne diseases change in the breathing zone when the distribution of supply air changes and if placement of the source of infection has any affect. The study also aims to investigate if displacement or mixing ventilation is the best choice to minimize transfer probability from an infected persons breath. Tracer gas measurements was done to answer the main questions. The tracer gas measurements were studied parallel to measurements of air velocities and temperatures on several positions in the room. For mixing ventilation, the measurements were done for two different directions of supply air jet, vertical and horizontal. For displacement ventilation measurements are done for two different temperatures on the supply air which was 21,3 ˚C and 16 ˚C. The results of the experimental part of this study showed that displacement ventilation had a lower transfer probability between an infected person and a non-infected person when compared to mixing ventilation. The transfer probability was 0,3 – 0,5 % for mixing ventilation and 0,1 – 0,3 % for displacement ventilation, which shows that displacement ventilation is generally at a lower level than mixing ventilation regardless of the position of the source of infection. The result in this thesis is like results found in the literature review which also shows that displacement ventilation has a lower tendency to spread infections between persons in the same room. The result for mixing ventilation regarding the direction of the supply air jet showed an impact on the transfer probability. The vertical supply air jet was affecting the force of the breath jet between the thermal manikin placed in front of each other, which is done as part of reduction in the transfer probability at the two different positions for the same direction of the supply air jet. For both ventilation systems – except for the vertical direction of the supply air jet in the case of mixing ventilation - the distance between the source of infection and exhaust diffuser has been shown to have an impact on the transfer probability. This means the transfer probability was lower at the location opposite the source of infection and diagonally from the source of infection, which is a greater distance than the location next to the source of infection. In terms of displacement ventilation, the location of the source of infection has shown an effect as the transfer probability was lower when the source of infection was placed closer to the exhaust diffuser and that the minimum distance from the source of infection in that case was the lowest.

Today, a significant portion of individuals’ time is spent indoors, estimated at approximately 90% of their total time. This raises concerns about the transmission of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) instigating Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and similar viruses and highlights the critical role of ventilation systems in indoor environments, which this study aims to investigate. Narrowing the focus to healthcare facilities, particularly hospitals in Sweden, the study includes the importance of ventilation systems in safeguarding the health safety and well-being of patients, healthcare workers in hospitals. To effectively combat the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, it is crucial to have a thorough understanding of its viral characteristics, with a specific centre on airborne transmission size, virus longevity, and quantum of infection. Furthermore, it is essential to recognize the major impact of ventilation rate, thermodynamic factors such as temperature and humidity, as well as pollutants in effectively mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and similar pathogens.  The comprehensive findings of this literature review underscore that, for hospitals in Sweden, a Heat Recovery Ventilation (HRV) system incorporating a plate heat exchanger is the most suitable ventilation system for this specific objective. Moreover, the recommended ventilation strategy is specifically tailored for implementation in wards or isolated rooms, where it is ideal for the incoming air to originate from the patient’s room floor, while the exit point is preferably located near or at the ceiling. In the context of this study, identified effective solutions involve the utilization and combination of high-efficiency filters and ultraviolet (UV) technology installed within ventilation system unit, particularly when an air recirculation system is used. Additionally, the implementation of RM3 (Rheem’s third generation products) UV-C technology for indoor use can be achieved without considerable intervention in ventilation system, depending on the type of ventilation system being utilized. In summary, this study enhances understanding of the complex relationship between ventilation systems, COVID-19 transmission and similar diseases, the optimization of thermodynamic factors, and selection of effective and practical measures. It provides valuable insights for designing effective ventilation strategies across various indoor environments, with a specific attention on healthcare facilities. / Idag spenderas en betydande del av individers tid inomhus, uppskattningsvis cirka 90% av deras totala tid. Detta väcker oro över överföringen av Coronavirussjukdom 2019 (COVID-19), som initierar Svårt Akut Respiratoriskt Syndrom Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) och liknande virus och belyser den kritiska rollen som ventilationssystem spelar i inomhusmiljöer, som denna studie syftar till att undersöka. Genom att begränsa fokus till vårdinrättningar, särskilt sjukhus i Sverige, inkluderar studien vikten av ventilationssystem för att säkerställa hälsosäkerheten och välbefinnandet för patienter och vårdpersonal på sjukhus. För att effektivt bekämpa spridningen av SARS-CoV-2-viruset är det viktigt att ha en grundlig förståelse för dess virala egenskaper, med ett specifikt fokus på luftburen överföringsstorlek, viruslivslängd och infektionsmängd. Dessutom är det viktigt att identifiera den stora inverkan av luftomsättningstakt, termodynamiska faktorer som temperatur och fuktighet samt föroreningar för att effektivt minska överföringen av SARS-CoV-2 och liknande patogener. De omfattande resultaten av denna litteraturstudie understryker att värmeåtervinningsventilationssystem (HRV) med plattvärmeväxlare är det mest lämpliga ventilationssystemet för sjukhus i Sverige för detta specifika mål. Dessutom är den rekommenderade ventilationsstrategin speciellt anpassad för implementering på avdelningar eller isolerade rum, där den är idealisk för att inkommande luft ska komma från patientens rumsgolv, medan utgångspunkten företrädesvis är placerad nära eller i taket. I samband med denna studie involverar identifierade effektiva lösningar, användning och kombination av högeffektiva filter och ultraviolett (UV)-teknik installerad i ventilationssystemenhet, särskilt när ett luftcirkulationssystem används. Dessutom kan implementeringen av RM3 (Rheems tredje generationens produkter) UV-C-teknik för inomhusbruk uppnås utan betydande ingrepp i ventilationssystem, beroende på vilken typ av ventilationssystem som används. Sammanfattningsvis ökar denna studieförståelse för det komplexa förhållandet mellan ventilationssystem, COVID-19-överföring och liknande sjukdomar, optimering av termodynamiska faktorer och val av effektiva och praktiska åtgärder. Den ger värdefulla insikter för att utforma effektiva ventilationsstrategier i olika inomhusmiljöer, med särskild uppmärksamhet på vårdinrättningar.