There are mainly two manufacturing processes used in the pharmaceutical industry, namely direct compression and granulation of which granulation can be subdivided into wet granulation and dry granulation. Wet granulation is a process still widely used in the pharmaceutical industry and provides better control of drug content uniformity and compactibility at low drug concentrations. Lactose monohydrate and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) were used as fillers in this study. Both these fillers possess unacceptable powder flow properties and the use of wet granulation may improve this property. One of the advantages of lactose monohydrate over MCC is that it is partially water soluble. A fractional factorial design was used in this study. Twelve tablet formulations were formulated containing different combinations of active ingredients (furosemide or pyridoxine hydrochloride), fillers (lactose monohydrate or MCC) and a binder (Kollidon® VA64) in three different concentrations (0.75, 1.5 or 3.0% w/w). The binder was used to produce granules by means of wet granulation, using ethanol as granulating fluid. The granules were dried in an oven and screened through different sized sieves to produce the final granulated powder formulations ready for tableting. A disintegrant (Ac-di-sol®) and lubricant (magnesium stearate) were incorporated into the granulated powder formulations extra-granular (0.5% w/w) and were kept as a constant in this study throughout all the formulations. A Turbula® mixer was used to mix the granulated powder formulations for a constant 5 minutes. During the first phase of the study, tablets were compressed using 2 compression settings (22 and 24). These compression settings were used to determine what effect different external pressures would have on the different tablet properties. Tablet weight for all the formulations was kept constant at 250 mg, although the volume of the matrix differed for each tablet formulation. The physical properties of the tablets were evaluated with regard to weight variation, mechanical strength (crushing strength and friability) and disintegration. Tablet formulation 12 yielded unsatisfactory tablets, due to poor powder flow into the die. Tablet formulations that contained the highest binder concentration (3.0% w/w) and were compressed at the highest compression setting (24) (formulations 4 and 9), exhibited the highest mechanical strength. The disintegration results revealed that the tablet formulations containing MCC as filler disintegrated faster compared to those containing lactose monohydrate. The increase in binder concentration caused an increase in mechanical strength, possibly decreasing tablet porosity, therefore prolonging disintegration time due to impeded water penetration into the tablet matrix. During the final phase of the study, dissolution studies were conducted on the different tablet formulations in 0.1 M HCl for 120 minutes. In terms of dissolution results, the initial dissolution rate (DRi) and extent of dissolution (AUC) were compared. It was found that the tablet formulations containing pyridoxine hydrochloride as active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) exhibited faster drug dissolution (higher DRi and AUC-values) compared to those tablet formulations containing furosemide. The faster dissolution exhibited by the pyridoxine hydro- chloride containing formulations can possibly be attributed to the fact that pyridoxine hydrochloride is good water soluble whereas furosemide is practically insoluble in water. The effect of the filler depended on the aqueous solubility of the filler and the concentration of the binder (Kollidon VA64) employed. An increase in binder concentration led to a decrease in the initial rate of dissolution as well as the extent of drug dissolution. In the case of the pyridoxine hydrochloride containing formulations, formulation 9 exhibited the slowest DRi and lowest extent of drug dissolution (1.40 ± 0.03 µg.cm-3.min-1 and 2396.52 ± 26.43 µg.cm-3.min respectively). In the case of the furosemide containing formulations, formulation 4 exhibited the slowest DRi and lowest extent of drug dissolution (0.22 ± 0.07 µg.cm-3.min-1 and 1018.62 ± 59.74 µg.cm-3 min respectively). In both cases, the formulations contained Kollidon VA64 in a concentration of 3% w/w and were compressed at compression setting 24. The disintegration process of tablets goes hand in hand with the dissolution process and results have shown that by establishing rapid contact between drug particles and the surrounding medium proves to be a necessity for rapid drug dissolution. Disintegration does not assure drug dissolution, but when prolonged, slower dissolution rates can be obtained, implying a slow rate and low extent of drug dissolution. The disintegrant in this study was incorporated extra-granular ensuring rapid tablet disintegration. However, due to binder concentration of 3% w/w, granule disintegration was probably negatively affected resulting in a lower drug surface area exposed to the surrounding dissolution medium, leading to a slower initial rate and extent of drug dissolution. From the results obtained during this study it was evident that formulation variables such as the type of filler, the concentration of the binder and compression setting employed during tablet manufacturing can have a ronounced effect on the pharmaceutical availability of the active ingredient. However, the extent of the effect was dependent on the aqueous solubility of the active ingredient. / Thesis (MSc (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

There are mainly two manufacturing processes used in the pharmaceutical industry, namely direct compression and granulation of which granulation can be subdivided into wet granulation and dry granulation. Wet granulation is a process still widely used in the pharmaceutical industry and provides better control of drug content uniformity and compactibility at low drug concentrations. Lactose monohydrate and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) were used as fillers in this study. Both these fillers possess unacceptable powder flow properties and the use of wet granulation may improve this property. One of the advantages of lactose monohydrate over MCC is that it is partially water soluble. A fractional factorial design was used in this study. Twelve tablet formulations were formulated containing different combinations of active ingredients (furosemide or pyridoxine hydrochloride), fillers (lactose monohydrate or MCC) and a binder (Kollidon® VA64) in three different concentrations (0.75, 1.5 or 3.0% w/w). The binder was used to produce granules by means of wet granulation, using ethanol as granulating fluid. The granules were dried in an oven and screened through different sized sieves to produce the final granulated powder formulations ready for tableting. A disintegrant (Ac-di-sol®) and lubricant (magnesium stearate) were incorporated into the granulated powder formulations extra-granular (0.5% w/w) and were kept as a constant in this study throughout all the formulations. A Turbula® mixer was used to mix the granulated powder formulations for a constant 5 minutes. During the first phase of the study, tablets were compressed using 2 compression settings (22 and 24). These compression settings were used to determine what effect different external pressures would have on the different tablet properties. Tablet weight for all the formulations was kept constant at 250 mg, although the volume of the matrix differed for each tablet formulation. The physical properties of the tablets were evaluated with regard to weight variation, mechanical strength (crushing strength and friability) and disintegration. Tablet formulation 12 yielded unsatisfactory tablets, due to poor powder flow into the die. Tablet formulations that contained the highest binder concentration (3.0% w/w) and were compressed at the highest compression setting (24) (formulations 4 and 9), exhibited the highest mechanical strength. The disintegration results revealed that the tablet formulations containing MCC as filler disintegrated faster compared to those containing lactose monohydrate. The increase in binder concentration caused an increase in mechanical strength, possibly decreasing tablet porosity, therefore prolonging disintegration time due to impeded water penetration into the tablet matrix. During the final phase of the study, dissolution studies were conducted on the different tablet formulations in 0.1 M HCl for 120 minutes. In terms of dissolution results, the initial dissolution rate (DRi) and extent of dissolution (AUC) were compared. It was found that the tablet formulations containing pyridoxine hydrochloride as active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) exhibited faster drug dissolution (higher DRi and AUC-values) compared to those tablet formulations containing furosemide. The faster dissolution exhibited by the pyridoxine hydro- chloride containing formulations can possibly be attributed to the fact that pyridoxine hydrochloride is good water soluble whereas furosemide is practically insoluble in water. The effect of the filler depended on the aqueous solubility of the filler and the concentration of the binder (Kollidon VA64) employed. An increase in binder concentration led to a decrease in the initial rate of dissolution as well as the extent of drug dissolution. In the case of the pyridoxine hydrochloride containing formulations, formulation 9 exhibited the slowest DRi and lowest extent of drug dissolution (1.40 ± 0.03 µg.cm-3.min-1 and 2396.52 ± 26.43 µg.cm-3.min respectively). In the case of the furosemide containing formulations, formulation 4 exhibited the slowest DRi and lowest extent of drug dissolution (0.22 ± 0.07 µg.cm-3.min-1 and 1018.62 ± 59.74 µg.cm-3 min respectively). In both cases, the formulations contained Kollidon VA64 in a concentration of 3% w/w and were compressed at compression setting 24. The disintegration process of tablets goes hand in hand with the dissolution process and results have shown that by establishing rapid contact between drug particles and the surrounding medium proves to be a necessity for rapid drug dissolution. Disintegration does not assure drug dissolution, but when prolonged, slower dissolution rates can be obtained, implying a slow rate and low extent of drug dissolution. The disintegrant in this study was incorporated extra-granular ensuring rapid tablet disintegration. However, due to binder concentration of 3% w/w, granule disintegration was probably negatively affected resulting in a lower drug surface area exposed to the surrounding dissolution medium, leading to a slower initial rate and extent of drug dissolution. From the results obtained during this study it was evident that formulation variables such as the type of filler, the concentration of the binder and compression setting employed during tablet manufacturing can have a ronounced effect on the pharmaceutical availability of the active ingredient. However, the extent of the effect was dependent on the aqueous solubility of the active ingredient. / Thesis (MSc (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Malaria is a parasitic disease claiming one million lives worldwide annually. Unfortunately, malaria-endemic countries in need of good quality medicines are also overwhelmed with counterfeit or substandard medicine. This results in treatment inefficacy, resistance towards treatment and death. Counterfeit or substandard quinine sulfate tablets are known to have infiltrated the market, however at this point in time, treatment efficacy of quinine sulfate has fortunately not yet been significantly impaired by resistance, but immediate action is required to prevent it from becoming obsolete. Validated analytical methods with justified specifications are effective in controlling the quality of medicines and to minimise the effect of poor quality medicines. Pharmacopoeia specifies analytical quality control procedures and accompanying specifications to standardise acceptable levels of product quality. Understandably, different monographs of different pharmacopoeias are developed by different independent laboratories and therefore their respective test procedures/specifications for the same FPP may differ from each other. Institutions such as the Pharmacopoeial Dicussion Group (PDG) aim to harmonise pharmacopoeia in order to synchronise final outcomes. This study evaluated the relevancy of differences in analytical procedures, results and specifications for quinine sulfate tablets set by the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP), British Pharmacopoeia (BP) and International Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Int.) in an aim to ensure that these different methods all provide with similar final outcomes and that they be effective in successfully evaluating the quality of quinine sulfate tablets. Four quinine sulfate tablet products were obtained from different manufacturers and were subjected to the tests of all three pharmacopoeia – BP, USP and Ph.Int. The results from identification, assay and related substance testing concluded that the outcomes were the same between the pharmacopoeia despite their differences in techniques/procedures/specifications. The assay, identification and related substances methods and specifications set by each respective monograph were deemed appropriate to evaluate the quality of quinine sulfate tablets. Even with differences in methodology, quantitative techniques and specifications, the USP and BP dissolution methods for quinine sulfate tablets shared the same final outcome at the first stage of dissolution, whereas none of the products achieved a compliant outcome using the Ph.Int. dissolution method. Possible reasons for the poor dissolution (when using the Ph.Int. method) were identified and investigated. Investigation into the solubility of quinine sulfate found the Ph.Int. dissolution method conditions to be too stringent, as the solubility of quinine sulfate in phosphate buffer pH 6.8 (dissolution medium specified by the Ph.Int.) was found to be much less than in acidic media (as proposed by the BP and USP dissolution methods). Several adapted dissolution methods (called developmental studies) were investigated to serve as potential alternatives for the Ph.Int. dissolution method. The developmental studies investigated an alternative dissolution medium, agitation rates (50 rpm, 75 rpm, 100 rpm) and medium volumes (500 ml, 750 ml, 900 ml and 1000 ml). Developmental study 6 was proposed as an alternative dissolution method. Developmental study 6 stipulates the use of the same medium as the original Ph.Int. method, as it was deemed the medium of choice for its discriminatory ability. To address the impaired solubility of quinine sulfate in phosphate buffer, the medium volume and agitation were increased (in reference to the original method) to 900 ml and 100 rpm respectively. The same analytical quantitation technique (UV-Vis spectroscopy) is proposed for Developmental study 6. The newly proposed method provided with final outcomes comparable to that of the USP and BP, however having more discriminatory power than the USP and BP. / MSc (Pharmaceutics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Malaria is a parasitic disease claiming one million lives worldwide annually. Unfortunately, malaria-endemic countries in need of good quality medicines are also overwhelmed with counterfeit or substandard medicine. This results in treatment inefficacy, resistance towards treatment and death. Counterfeit or substandard quinine sulfate tablets are known to have infiltrated the market, however at this point in time, treatment efficacy of quinine sulfate has fortunately not yet been significantly impaired by resistance, but immediate action is required to prevent it from becoming obsolete. Validated analytical methods with justified specifications are effective in controlling the quality of medicines and to minimise the effect of poor quality medicines. Pharmacopoeia specifies analytical quality control procedures and accompanying specifications to standardise acceptable levels of product quality. Understandably, different monographs of different pharmacopoeias are developed by different independent laboratories and therefore their respective test procedures/specifications for the same FPP may differ from each other. Institutions such as the Pharmacopoeial Dicussion Group (PDG) aim to harmonise pharmacopoeia in order to synchronise final outcomes. This study evaluated the relevancy of differences in analytical procedures, results and specifications for quinine sulfate tablets set by the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP), British Pharmacopoeia (BP) and International Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Int.) in an aim to ensure that these different methods all provide with similar final outcomes and that they be effective in successfully evaluating the quality of quinine sulfate tablets. Four quinine sulfate tablet products were obtained from different manufacturers and were subjected to the tests of all three pharmacopoeia – BP, USP and Ph.Int. The results from identification, assay and related substance testing concluded that the outcomes were the same between the pharmacopoeia despite their differences in techniques/procedures/specifications. The assay, identification and related substances methods and specifications set by each respective monograph were deemed appropriate to evaluate the quality of quinine sulfate tablets. Even with differences in methodology, quantitative techniques and specifications, the USP and BP dissolution methods for quinine sulfate tablets shared the same final outcome at the first stage of dissolution, whereas none of the products achieved a compliant outcome using the Ph.Int. dissolution method. Possible reasons for the poor dissolution (when using the Ph.Int. method) were identified and investigated. Investigation into the solubility of quinine sulfate found the Ph.Int. dissolution method conditions to be too stringent, as the solubility of quinine sulfate in phosphate buffer pH 6.8 (dissolution medium specified by the Ph.Int.) was found to be much less than in acidic media (as proposed by the BP and USP dissolution methods). Several adapted dissolution methods (called developmental studies) were investigated to serve as potential alternatives for the Ph.Int. dissolution method. The developmental studies investigated an alternative dissolution medium, agitation rates (50 rpm, 75 rpm, 100 rpm) and medium volumes (500 ml, 750 ml, 900 ml and 1000 ml). Developmental study 6 was proposed as an alternative dissolution method. Developmental study 6 stipulates the use of the same medium as the original Ph.Int. method, as it was deemed the medium of choice for its discriminatory ability. To address the impaired solubility of quinine sulfate in phosphate buffer, the medium volume and agitation were increased (in reference to the original method) to 900 ml and 100 rpm respectively. The same analytical quantitation technique (UV-Vis spectroscopy) is proposed for Developmental study 6. The newly proposed method provided with final outcomes comparable to that of the USP and BP, however having more discriminatory power than the USP and BP. / MSc (Pharmaceutics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Direct compression has gained significant interest since its advent in the late 1950's due to its potential ease compared to wet granulation. The primary prerequisites for powders used in direct compression are (i) good flow properties (ii) good compressibility and (iii) an acceptable dilution potential to accommodate a relative high percentage of active ingredient. Several filler/binders have been manufactured especially for direct compression and co–processing is one of the recent methods used to produce good compressible excipients with acceptable flow properties. In this study, lactose–based filler/binders were used which included simple and modified lactose materials (Granulac, Lactopress, Flowlac and Tablettose) as well as co–processed excipients (Starlac, Cellactose and Microcelac). A comprehensive literature study on direct compression revealed the importance of the physical properties of filler/binders such as interparticle forces, particle shape, particle size and distribution, powder density, particle surface structure and particle packing geometry which influence the flow of powders. All the materials were subjected to the various tests available to evaluate powder flow, namely (i) angle of repose (AoR), (ii) critical orifice diameter (COD), (iii) flow rate and percentage compressibility (%C) in terms of the powders' bulk and tap densities. The results of these tests confirmed the expected flow properties of the various filler/binders, with only one material exhibiting extremely poor flow properties. The following rank order in terms of all flow tests conducted was established; Starlac >> Microcelac ~ Flowlac >> Cellactose > Tablettose > Lactopress >>> Granulac. The co–processed filler/binders presented with superior flow compared to the other lactose–based materials. During the next phase of the study, the compaction properties of the various fillers were evaluated, employing direct compression. Compacts of pure filler were tabletted on an eccentric tablet press at different compression pressures (manipulated by the upper punch setting of the tablet press). The modified lactose filler/binders (Lactopress, Flowlac and Tablettose) exhibited unexpectedly poor compression profiles, where the co–processed filler/binders (Starlac, Cellactose and Microcelac) produced compacts with acceptable appearance and compact properties. Two lubricants (Mg–St or Pruv), which were tested separately in formulations were added since no compacts could be produced from the pure filler/binders. None of the modified lactose filler/binders, in combination with a lubricant, were able to produce an acceptable compact, since lamination occurred during compression. The co–processed filler/binders produced satisfactory compacts with the addition of a lubricant, but lactose–cellulose fillers (Cellactose and Microcelac) also required the inclusion of a disintegrant (Ac–Di–Sol) to induce satisfactory compact disintegration. Poor compressible active ingredients (paracetamol), which exhibit very poor flow properties, are usually difficult to use during direct compression. Many excipients (tested in this study) are formulated to accommodate these drugs and produce acceptable functional tablets. After identifying the best filler/binders (co–processed fillers), according to their flow and compressible properties, paracetamol was added to the formulations. During a pilot study, the percentage paracetamol these fillers could accommodate in a 400 mg tablet was determined. Both Microcelac and Cellactose could accommodate 24.5% w/w paracetamol, whilst Starlac could only accommodated 19.5% w/w. Paracetamol is well known for its tendency to cause tablet capping and lamination. An acceptable upper punch setting range (20–22) was chosen for tabletting, followed by quality control tests done. All three formulations produced suitable tablets for testing and exhibited good tablet properties. All tablets disintegrated within two minutes, with hardness profiles between 120 N and 148 N and friability percentages less than 1%. Dissolution studies, however, are probably the ultimate test to distinguish between the capability of filler/binders to release the optimum percentage drug after disintegration. Dissolution studies were done on all three formulations using the AUC (area under the curve) and IDR (initial drug release) as parameters to evaluate drug release. All tablets exhibited high initial dissolution rates (between 0.018 - 0.023 mg/min/ml) and 100% drug release was observed. Starlac presented with a lower amount of drug released compared to the other two, but can be explained by the lower percentage (19.5%) paracetamol present in the formulation. It was once again confirmed that the physical and compressible properties of potential directly compressible filler/binders play a major role in direct compression. It was concluded that co–processed filler/binders (Starlac, Microcelac and Cellactose) definitely exhibited better tabletting properties during direct compression. They were able to accommodate a certain percentage of paracetamol, although it was expected that they would accommodate a higher amount (at least 50% of total tablet weight). / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Direct compression has gained significant interest since its advent in the late 1950's due to its potential ease compared to wet granulation. The primary prerequisites for powders used in direct compression are (i) good flow properties (ii) good compressibility and (iii) an acceptable dilution potential to accommodate a relative high percentage of active ingredient. Several filler/binders have been manufactured especially for direct compression and co–processing is one of the recent methods used to produce good compressible excipients with acceptable flow properties. In this study, lactose–based filler/binders were used which included simple and modified lactose materials (Granulac, Lactopress, Flowlac and Tablettose) as well as co–processed excipients (Starlac, Cellactose and Microcelac). A comprehensive literature study on direct compression revealed the importance of the physical properties of filler/binders such as interparticle forces, particle shape, particle size and distribution, powder density, particle surface structure and particle packing geometry which influence the flow of powders. All the materials were subjected to the various tests available to evaluate powder flow, namely (i) angle of repose (AoR), (ii) critical orifice diameter (COD), (iii) flow rate and percentage compressibility (%C) in terms of the powders' bulk and tap densities. The results of these tests confirmed the expected flow properties of the various filler/binders, with only one material exhibiting extremely poor flow properties. The following rank order in terms of all flow tests conducted was established; Starlac >> Microcelac ~ Flowlac >> Cellactose > Tablettose > Lactopress >>> Granulac. The co–processed filler/binders presented with superior flow compared to the other lactose–based materials. During the next phase of the study, the compaction properties of the various fillers were evaluated, employing direct compression. Compacts of pure filler were tabletted on an eccentric tablet press at different compression pressures (manipulated by the upper punch setting of the tablet press). The modified lactose filler/binders (Lactopress, Flowlac and Tablettose) exhibited unexpectedly poor compression profiles, where the co–processed filler/binders (Starlac, Cellactose and Microcelac) produced compacts with acceptable appearance and compact properties. Two lubricants (Mg–St or Pruv), which were tested separately in formulations were added since no compacts could be produced from the pure filler/binders. None of the modified lactose filler/binders, in combination with a lubricant, were able to produce an acceptable compact, since lamination occurred during compression. The co–processed filler/binders produced satisfactory compacts with the addition of a lubricant, but lactose–cellulose fillers (Cellactose and Microcelac) also required the inclusion of a disintegrant (Ac–Di–Sol) to induce satisfactory compact disintegration. Poor compressible active ingredients (paracetamol), which exhibit very poor flow properties, are usually difficult to use during direct compression. Many excipients (tested in this study) are formulated to accommodate these drugs and produce acceptable functional tablets. After identifying the best filler/binders (co–processed fillers), according to their flow and compressible properties, paracetamol was added to the formulations. During a pilot study, the percentage paracetamol these fillers could accommodate in a 400 mg tablet was determined. Both Microcelac and Cellactose could accommodate 24.5% w/w paracetamol, whilst Starlac could only accommodated 19.5% w/w. Paracetamol is well known for its tendency to cause tablet capping and lamination. An acceptable upper punch setting range (20–22) was chosen for tabletting, followed by quality control tests done. All three formulations produced suitable tablets for testing and exhibited good tablet properties. All tablets disintegrated within two minutes, with hardness profiles between 120 N and 148 N and friability percentages less than 1%. Dissolution studies, however, are probably the ultimate test to distinguish between the capability of filler/binders to release the optimum percentage drug after disintegration. Dissolution studies were done on all three formulations using the AUC (area under the curve) and IDR (initial drug release) as parameters to evaluate drug release. All tablets exhibited high initial dissolution rates (between 0.018 - 0.023 mg/min/ml) and 100% drug release was observed. Starlac presented with a lower amount of drug released compared to the other two, but can be explained by the lower percentage (19.5%) paracetamol present in the formulation. It was once again confirmed that the physical and compressible properties of potential directly compressible filler/binders play a major role in direct compression. It was concluded that co–processed filler/binders (Starlac, Microcelac and Cellactose) definitely exhibited better tabletting properties during direct compression. They were able to accommodate a certain percentage of paracetamol, although it was expected that they would accommodate a higher amount (at least 50% of total tablet weight). / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.