This study examines the theory of social presence and its relevancy to distance learning. Short, William, and Christie (1976) originally designed social presence to evaluate the difference between types of dyads (one-to-one interactions) and the quality of the communication media used for those interactions (Rafaeli, 1988; Rice, 1984; Walther, 1992). However, the theory of social presence was not design to explain mediated communication between multiple individuals. Although studies have investigated the effects of social presence in computer-mediated conferencing, little field research exist on the importance of social presence with multiple individuals communicating together within a Web-based instructional program. Moreover, it is evident from the body of literature that a universal meaning of social presence is lacking. For this reason, social presence in this study referred to the degree to which adult learners perceived that they had established some form of rapport with members of an online community. This includes interactions with other learners and support personnel (i.e., faculty, staff, technical support, graders, etc.). Social presence has emerged as an important social factor in the field of distance learning (Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997; Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, & Archer, 1999). Recent field studies emphasize the importance of examining social and psychological factors that affect student satisfaction, impact learning, and influences the way people communicate in distance learning environments (Blocher, 1997; Gunawardena, 1995, Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997; Hackman, 1990, 1996; Hiltz, 1997; Rourke, 1999; Walther, 1992). Researchers in the fields of education and human interpersonal communication have identified "interactivity" (i.e., interaction), "intimacy," and "immediacy" as attributes that enhance social presence (Christophel, 1990; Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997; McIsaac & Gunawardena, 1996; Mehrabian, 1989; Moore, 1989b; Short et al., 1976). Although social presence has been characterized as an important construct in distance learning (McIsaac & Gunawardena, 1996), little existing field research describes the value adult learners place on it, and whether it affects their satisfaction within a mediated learning environment. This descriptive study examined the adult distance learners' perceived value of social presence (based on interactions, intimacy, and immediacy), in addition to whether it existed within an asynchronous Web-based instructional program. / Ph. D.

Distance learning is a fast-growing method of delivery in higher education. The literature about distance learning is rich with information about learning and course design. However, there is little information about the non-academic support services that universities can and should provide for distance students. This study addresses that gap in the literature by exploring the non-academic needs of distance learners. Students and faculty members involved with distance learning at four-year institutions in the Fall of 2000 were asked to identify what, if any, needs distance learners have outside the classroom. Specifically, an original web-based survey was designed to identify 34 possible non-academic needs. Respondents were asked to rate the importance of those needs in the success of distance learners, the accessibility of services to meet those needs, and when the needs present themselves to distance learners. Findings indicate that the non-academic needs of distance learners are very similar to those of campus-based students. The most important needs are basic: information about the institution and program, a way to purchase books, a contact person at the institution, and academic advising. More traditional developmental needs such as leadership development, experience with diversity, and career services were important to respondents pursuing Bachelors degrees. Services to meet the needs are currently not easily accessible. Most needs present themselves throughout a student's academic career. Institutions involved with distance learning should consider addressing basic needs first. If an institution targets a large number of students pursuing Bachelor degrees at a distance, they might also add services to meet more traditional developmental needs. / Ph. D.

The purpose of this study was to identify the barriers Virginia agricultural producers encounter when using the Internet and their preferences when seeking information delivered via the Internet. The results are expected to provide Extension educators needed information about producer Internet use patterns and their preferences related to Internet-based learning systems. The survey population (N = 370) consisted of Virginia agricultural producers currently known to be using the Internet as identified by the county Agricultural Extension agents. Data were collected online via an interactive, encrypted Web site and analyzed with SAS/STAT software. The 186 usable producer responses indicated that they were predominately white (98.36%), males (82.87%) averaging 51 years of age with some college education. Their primary occupation was farm or ranch work (41.71%) with a gross value of agricultural sales of $100,000 - $249,999. Nearly 60% conducted Internet agricultural marketing activities; three quarters purchased agricultural supplies, 43.17% conduct non-agricultural Internet business, and 50% use dialup services to access the Internet. In total, 95.68% of the responding producers access the Internet at least once a week and 31.60% reported previous participation in Internet-based learning. Producers below 30 years of age considered their lack of experience/training to be less of a barrier than older producers. Time constraints associated with job responsibilities, isolation from other program participants, and their ability to learn at a distance were seen as greater barriers by males than females. Producers listing their primary occupation as other than farming saw time constraints associated with their job as a greater barrier than those retired but still farming. Producers with a high school education generally rated barriers associated with Internet-based learning as greater obstacles than those with advanced degrees. Following an exposure to an Internet-based learning experience, no differences were observed related to the producers' age, gender, primary occupation, and the operation's gross value of agricultural sales and the selected factors. Producers making agricultural Internet purchases, perceived their motivation to participate in Internet-base learning as less of a barrier than those that did not. Generally, as the producers' Internet use frequency increased, their perception of the barriers was reduced and those with previous Internet-based learning experience saw their ability to learn at a distance as less of a barrier than did those with no experience. A comparison of pre- and post-exposure data, revealed time constrains associated with job responsibilities, access to instructors/specialists, feedback/instructor contact, and the motivation to participate as the greatest barriers to Internet-base learning. Differences in pre- and post-exposure assessments confirm that producers' perception of the barriers were worse than actuality. Extension's Internet-based learning experiences should be accessible from a familiar Internet location. The learners' abilities and connectivity should be considered when developing systems to minimize barriers associated with these factors. Internet-based activities should be relevant to the learner. Experiences should be available in multiple formats including video, audio, print and combinations of the aforementioned. Learners should be afforded the opportunity to interact with the presenter/instructor via the most acceptable and timely means. / Ph. D.

This study investigated self-regulated learning behaviors and their relationships with academic performance in web-based courses. The participants (n = 106) were distance learners taking humanities and technical coursed offered by a community college in Virginia. Data was collected using 28 items from the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire and 5 demographically related items. Data analysis included factor analyses, multivariate analysis of variance, and regression analyses. The employment of self-regulated learning behaviors differed between humanities and technical courses (p = .0138). Time and study environment management (p = .0009) and intrinsic goal orientation (p = .0373) categories reported significant findings in their relationship to academic performance. The factors affiliated with time and study environment management and intrinsic goal orientation were used as predictors in the development of a mathematical formula used to predict academic success in a web-based course. These predictors explain 21 percent of the variance in the academic success rating calculated using the mathematical formula developed from this study. / Ph. D.

Digital libraries are fast expanding into the role of independent educational entities that aspire not only to complementing traditional classroom teaching, but also allow open electronic learning for distance and continued education. These multifaceted roles can be realized only if the course content and the related content management system are versatile enough to be captured into any individual's learning needs. Many studies have defined a concept of "learning object" to address the issues and needs. But in attempting to solve the problem, the definitions have emphasized some aspects of the digital library while leaving the other issues to be solved later. Thus, the whole system dynamics is either weak or too cumbersome to navigate. As a part of this masters work, firstly the current model of pedagogical endowment was investigated. In order to accommodate the digital nature of education, a new modern profile of learning is proposed that allows modular yet efficient transfer of knowledge from the teacher to the pupil. The thesis then proposes a comprehensive learning object (LO) model, along with the associated system model, that will allow complete and flexible integration of content into the modern digital library profile. The process will be user-centric (both for knowledge developers and learners) as well as metadata-centric. It is scalable and interoperable with legacy and existing content databases and display systems. This thesis covers how the LO model is integrated into the core of the library's content development, discovery, and delivery process. The results of the experiment in terms of ease-of-use, flow-control, and feasibility of the model are documented. A beta-version of these concepts has been successfully tested with volunteers and implemented as a part of the Digital Library Network for Engineering and Technology (DLNET) project. / Master of Science

The study investigated the effects of self-monitoring on students' academic achievement and self-regulation in an interactive television (ITV) classroom. High school students taking the Japanese courses via ITV were asked to engage in self-monitoring activities, including goal setting, self-recording, and self-evaluation for 6 weeks using online databases. The study employed a quasi-experimental design with pre- and post-tests. and two groups: control and experimental groups, were formed to examine the effects of self-monitoring. Students' test grades and the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaires were used to measure academic achievement and self-regulation. Hierarchical regressions were conducted to analyze the data. While no significant difference was found between two groups, the study provided directions for future research. / Ph. D.

Proceedings of International Summerworkshop Computer Science

Актуальность темы исследования на сегодняшний день обусловлена резким активным внедрением дистанционной формы обучения в образовательную систему в связи с распространением пандемии. Целью диссертационной работы являлось сравнение двух контрастных групп студентов по отношению к дистанционному обучению. Результаты исследования с достоверностью показали, что студенты, готовые к полной замене очного обучения на дистанционное, в отличии от студентов, считающих, что дистанционное обучение не может полностью заменить им очное обучение, обладают такой отличительной психологической особенностью, как интроверсия. Они с меньшей вероятностью испытывают положительные эмоциональные состояния и в меньшей степени склоны к взаимодействию с другими людьми. Результаты исследования с достоверностью показали, что студенты, предпочитающие дистанционный тип обучения по сравнению с группой студентов, считающих, что дистанционное обучение не может полностью заменить очное обучение, обладают такими психологическими особенностями, как: низко выраженная познавательная мотивация; низко выраженная мотивация достижения; низко выраженная мотивация саморазвития; низко выраженная мотивация самоуважения; ярко выраженная экстернальная мотивация; ярко выраженная амотивация. Они испытывают пониженный интерес к обучению, не стремятся к развитию своих способностей и потенциала в рамках учебной деятельности для достижения ощущения мастерства и компетентности, не пытаются добиваться высоких результатов в учебе, не чувствуют удовольствия от процесса решения сложных задач, не находят особого смысла в учебной деятельности и испытывают скорее вынужденную потребность в обучении, ради получения какой-либо выгоды в будущем, например, получения высокооплачиваемой работы. Следует учитывать, что наше исследование проводилось на базе прохождения и изучения респондентами предмета «Естественно-научная картина мира» в дистанционной форме, и для большинства студентов, обучающихся на гуманитарном и экономическом направлениях специальностей, этот курс не являлся профильным предметом. Практическая значимость. Понимание и учитывание индивидуальных личностных особенностей студентов, предпочитающих учиться только лишь в дистанционной форме обучения, в дальнейшем может повысить качество и эффективность данной формы обучения при разработке различных спецкурсов, лекций вузов и колледжей, курсов повышения квалификации в области дистанционного образования. / The relevance of the research topic today is due to the sharp active introduction of distance learning into the educational system in connection with the spread of the pandemic. The purpose of the dissertation work was to compare two contrasting groups of students in relation to distance learning. The results of the study showed with certainty that students who are ready to completely replace full-time education with distance learning, in contrast to students who believe that distance learning cannot completely replace face-to-face education, have such a distinctive psychological feature as introversion. They are less likely to experience positive emotional states and are less likely to interact with other people. The results of the study showed with certainty that students who prefer distance learning compared to a group of students who believe that distance learning cannot completely replace full-time education have such psychological characteristics as: low cognitive motivation; low level of achievement motivation; low expressed motivation for self-development; low self-esteem motivation; pronounced external motivation; pronounced motivation. They experience a reduced interest in learning, do not strive to develop their abilities and potential within the framework of educational activities to achieve a sense of mastery and competence, do not try to achieve high results in studies, do not feel pleasure in the process of solving complex problems, do not find much meaning in learning activities and experience rather a forced need for learning, for the sake of obtaining some benefit in the future, for example, getting a high paying job. It should be taken into account that our study was conducted on the basis of passing and studying the subject "Natural-scientific picture of the world" by the respondents in a distance form, and for the majority of students studying in the humanitarian and economic areas of specialties, this course was not a core subject. Practical significance. Understanding and taking into account the individual personal characteristics of students who prefer to study only in distance learning, in the future can improve the quality and the effectiveness of this form of education in the development of various special courses, lectures of universities and colleges, advanced training courses in the field of distance education.

Nowadays the Learning Management System (LMS) platforms provide limited bidirectional, interactive mechanisms that they are competent to handle personal or small-scale distance learning systems. These mechanisms are designed for one to many online tutorials, and the technology utilizes single-input by single-output video stream technology, the video and audio data need to be coupled with one or many Multipoint Control Units (MCU) to mix or convert them into a single output media stream. In this platform MCU is critical to LMS, however, such system is expensive, lack of capacity and difficult to be massively deployed. Access-Grid (AG), an Open Source program, offers users capability to watch online multimedia audio-video contents from all the interconnected nodes of LMS through Multicast protocol, and supports groups-to-group high quality interactive distance learning. It requires all the networks to support the Multicast protocol. The MBONE (Multicast Backbone) can be used to connect different Multicast groups via Unicast communication. However, if the number of groups involving in the distance learning are large, the host computers or routers of the network will be heavily loaded because they need to handle the delivering of the media packets. To use a QuickBridge for aggregating and delivering packages is an alternative of LMS and requires (N-1) *N *BW bandwidth . For example, if there is a 15 nodes online conference and each node uses 800kbps data rate to transmit audio-video contents, then the demanded bandwidth of the aggregation is 168 Mbps. The way of dispersing and controlling the data flow becomes important factors and will greatly affect the quality of the AG online conference. This thesis modifies the procedure of AG and QuickBridge, and allows all the AG Clients to be able to transmit Unicast and Multicast packets in the online conference. It offers a Meeting Management Server to dynamically adjust topology and hub points, and achieves better elasticity to the system. By modifying VIC and RAT procedure, the system controls the outbound audio-video data flow from each nodes of online conference, and reduces the demand of bandwidth. The system can directly provide end-to-end conferencing, using Unicast communication to connect the nodes in different Multicast groups, or using the Multicast on the backbone and then using unicast communication to the local nodes. The functionality of the LMS can be improved and capable of supporting multi-windows to multi-user interactive online conference for the users. The results of this thesis can be applied upon real-time interactive distance learning, online video conferencing and interactive online TV. It also helps to lower the cost of the system and reduce the requirement of network bandwidth.

Distance education as delivery mode is currently attracting more and more learners globally who want to improve their skills and qualifications. This is necessitated by especially the limited components of existing contact universities, financial expenditure and working learners. The presenting of open distance learning by existing contact universities in South Africa is relatively unknown. Consequently the aim of this study is also to investigate a model for Open Distance Learning used at the NWU, an existing contact university. In order to achieve this aim, several other aims were set as well. The most important findings of these aims are subsequently summarized. Aim one was to determine how distance education, open distance learning and e-learning have been conceptualized in the literature. It emerges clearly from the literature that various barriers and challenges accompany the implementation and delivery of distance and open distance learning program. These barriers particularly concern matters such as academic, cultural and technical aspects like the student’s experience, the position of the lecturer regarding the program, the design of the program, the fact that development in technology is constantly kept in mind and kept up with, as well as problems with financial aspects. The second aim intended to compare open distance learning in developed and developing countries as far as contact classes and e-learning are concerned, in order to establish the best practices for a suitable management model. The open distance learning models of twelve universities were examined separately and compared to one another. From these comparisons the following components of open distance learning were indentified which would be applicable to both developing and developed countries: (i) the use of traditional paper-based study material; (ii) the use of various forms of technology; (iii) the use of e-learning, and (iv) voluntary supporting contact classes. From the literature it has been shown that, despite limited infrastructure, poverty, illiteracy and geographical isolation, e-learning and m-learning are increasingly implemented as delivery modes in open distance learning programmes in developing as well as developed countries. Aim three was to establish, from within the literature, the nature of management models with specific reference to the innovations within managing business models in the context of open distance learning. Firstly variables which play a role in new business models were considered. Secondly the levels according to which the innovation of new models should take place were investigated, and also how these could possibly be implemented within the NWU, as well as the principles applicable to the innovation and implementing of a new model from an existing mother company. Factors which could play a part in the plans to present distance learning programs were also considered, whether these would imply a new distance education unit or the continued presentation of such programs. The most important aspects to consider for such a management model are addressed in aim seven. Aim four investigated the effect of attendance or non-attendance of contact classes on the academic achievement of open distance learning students within selected Advanced \certificate in Education (ACE) programs. This aim referred to an empirical investigation which comprised five phases. A consecutively progressing research design was used, consisting of both quantitative and qualitative methods, known as the multi-mode design. Phases one to three address aim four. Spearman’s rank order correlations, one-way ANOVAs (t-tests) and two-way tables (Cramer’s effect sizes) were calculated in order to identify significant correlation (effect sizes) between variables. It was found that students who attended contact classes did not achieve significantly better during examinations than students who did not attend. The average module mark in the examination of students who did not attend contact classes was 49.5%. The average mark of students who attended three or more contact classes was 52.6%. Considering the examination results, the passing rate of students who attended contact classes was 89% as opposed to 82% for those who did not attend any contact classes. Upon comparing data of students attending vacation school and those who did not, it emerged that students who attended vacation school achieved an average module mark (for all modules) of 42.4% as opposed to 52.7% of those who did not attend any vacation school. Aim five considered the open distance learning student’s opinions on and experience of attending contact classes and not attending, within selected ACE programs. Questionnaires were distributed to a number of students who attended contact classes, and to some who did not attend. The following findings emerged: reasons why students do not attend contact classes are (i) distance from tuition centre; (ii) personal reasons such as family responsibilities or funerals; (iii) because classes are not presented by full-time NWU lecturers; (iv) medium of instruction, limited time and class sizes also seemed to pose problems. Aim six investigated the readiness of the open distance learning student for e-learning within selected ACE programs. Focus group interviews regarding this aim were conducted with three groups of students. The following was found: (i) the vast majority of students (62.1%) do not have computers at home; (ii) 80.4% indicated that that they could not access the Internet, and that (iii) cell phone communication seemed to be the solution, since 93.1% of students own cell phones. Aim seven investigated the opinions of management experts at the NWU concerning the components and practice of an ODL model at the NWU. In order to comply with this aim, an intensive literature study was done on open distance learning models internationally. In the second place an empirical investigation was conducted regarding attendance of contact classes and e-learning as teaching method for the teaching and learning component of an open distance learning model. Thirdly focus group interviews were conducted with senior management of the NWU regarding challenges, risks and components of an open distance learning model. According to the data obtained from these interviews, various matrix analyses were done, which could serve as basis for a management model in open distance learning. The matrix analyses identified the following eleven components as important for a management and practice model for open distance learning: (i) Teaching and learning pertaining to development and quality of study material, effective assessment, the required program designers, training of lecturers and facilitators for presenting open distance learning programs, and efficient quality evaluation. (ii) ITC for open distance learning refers to technological support for processes such as assessment, interactive presentation of lessons, using Internet, cell phone technology and the use of the web page. (iii) Support practice for management which involves matters such as the policy of administrative processes regarding registration, cooperation with consortiums, assessment of assignments and examinations, and dealing with administrative processes different from on-campus. (iv) Finances which refer to compiling annual budgets, remuneration of facilitators, determining the profitability of programs presented, as well as financing technological development. (v) Tuition centres: coordination between the university and tuition centres is crucial as far as contact classes, interactive presentations, group discussions as well as examinations are concerned. (vi) Short courses and projects, especially as far as continuing professional development is concerned, as well as the development of a preparatory college for prospective students and cooperation with private institutions. (vii) Quality processes which include compulsory evaluation of program content and of the effect of programs as evaluated by the private sector, identifying new programs and cooperation with other faculties. (viii) Marketing which can be done by the university itself or by a consortium of collaborators. (ix) A structure for open distance learning with its own, unique and particular structure according to need. Factors which may be significant are the number of students studying through open distance learning, the nature of the programs presented and cooperation between consortiums. (x) Hierarchical structure which in the first place requires effective management of an open distance unit, and secondly also that such unit functions in cooperation with and within existing structures. Especially executive authority and lines for reporting should be outlined clearly. (xi) Research must be done in collaboration with other faculties in order to acquire a particular distance education entity. Research regarding the management of, e.g. the effect of programs, contact class attendance, readiness for e-learning and technology at tuition centres, can also be conducted. The exigency for development of an o pen distance learning unit within the NWU, together with a management model for effective management and practice of distance programs, was the main theme of this study. This study has succeeded in suggesting a management model which could be utilized profitably in endeavoring to attain the strategic aim of presenting programs by means of distance education. It also addresses the national need in South Africa of access to tertiary education for more learners. / PhD (Education Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012