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The thesis analyses how large European chemical companies assimilated biotechnology during the 1980s and what effect this had on the structure and organisation of their innovative capabilities. Since their establishment in the early 1900s these companies have grown, through a process of innovation and technological diversification, into very large and successful multinational and multiproduct firms today world-wide leaders in their sector. This was to a large extent made possible by their ability to develop internally their own technology and master scientific and technological advance in synthetic chemistry. The emergence of biotechnology (one of the most important and powerful generic technologies of the 20th century) in an institutional and scientific setting largely external to their core competences, posed them the problem of "learning" and "innovation" in new terms. New strategies for "learning" had therefore to be developed and implemented. Biotechnology was largely assimilated by these firms as an enabling technology rather than a product technology and this had for them a number of implications for the organisation of the R&D function and of searching procedures. Differences in strategic behaviour and decision-making in the process of learning and capability building in the new technology can be related both to structural differences in their own national system of innovation (i. e. science system) and differences in corporate cultures (i. e. visions and beliefs). On a theoretical ground these case studies of learning in a radically new technology question directly the concept of learning developed within an evolutionary approach to the theory of the firm and of innovation, and provide some theoretical insights on the links between organisational and technical change in a case of a very science based technology

This is a formative evaluation study of the "Class-Teacher" pre-service teacher education programme at the University of Jordan. The aim was to identify and evaluate the programme as perceived by the programme's participants. The choice of the topic was inspired by the researcher's perception that there were negative faculty and students' attitudes toward the programme. The programme's evaluation was intended to be responsive to its participants' needs and concerns. It was also planned and implemented within the interpretive paradigm of research. Stake's countenance model of evaluation was used mainly to guide the process of data collection. Both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection including questionnaires, formal and informal interviews and document analysis were used. The fieldwork took place in two different contexts, the university where the theoretical (on-campus) part of the programme has been implemented and the cooperating schools where the student's teaching practice took place. The target groups were student teachers, university faculty members and supervisors, co-operating teachers and headteachers at the co-operating schools. The findings of the study indicate that there is a lack of clarity regarding the objectives of the programme among the majority of its participants. Concerning the programme's curriculum, the findings show that the student teachers welcome the variety of its content. However, the students criticised certain aspects of the programme's content, particularly the professional sequence, of lack of relevance to the school curriculum and therefore to their needs as student teachers. The findings also show that there is a need to increase the weight of the school-based component of the programme since there is a perceived lack of balance in the content. Although there is a perceived lack of communication between The University and the cooperating schools that has an effect on the training process, student teachers seem most satisfied with their school-based training. The final chapter further discusses the above as well as many other main findings, reports the problems raised and posits a set of recommendations intended to resolve the identified problems.

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The thesis is focussed on three related areas: i) policy-making perceptions of Gambian secondary schooling, and how their limitations can be improved through an awareness of institutional realities; ii) an examination of key intra-school features of secondary schooling in two case-study schools (a high, and a secondary technical school); iii) an examination of the perceptions a cross-section of typical modern-sector employers have of secondary education, and secondary school leavers; as well as the training and employment orientations that the two forms of secondary education tend to give school-leavers. The problem the research is concerned about is formulated through an illustration of the historical emergence of perceptions of the nature and role of Gambian secondary schooling. This is followed by an examination and analysis of subsequent and current policy perceptions of the function, nature, problems and solutions, associated with the two types of secondary schools. This offers part of the rationale for the research. Issues in the literature of education and development are used to put the Gambian situation in perspective, as well as to situate the thrust and justification of the research.Case-study data from the two schools are used to indicate the limitations of policy makers' perceptions of secondary schooling, and the benefits that can come from an informed dialogue between policy and schools. A comparative analysis of the two schools is used for the purpose of bringing out the less obvious, and perhaps more meaningful and tell-tale educational features about them. These are used to demonstrate the limitations of relying on aggregated assumptions about national school-types, as well as to indicate contextual features that one may use to qualify the application of cross-national educational factors. To the extent that part of the status of the data relating to school-leavers is in terms of outcomes of official policy on secondary education, it is used to exemplify the educational factors employers refer to when employing secondary school leavers. To complement this, there is also an examination of the extent to which type of secondary school attended is related to school-leavers' perceptions of post-secondary school opportunities. The presentation of the thesis is organised according to three clusters of chapters; background, data-based, and analytical. The background chapters consist of contextual historical information, issues in the literature, rationales, and methodological issues. The data-based chapters consist basically of policy issues, and the school case-studies. The analytical chapters consist of syntheses of policy perceptions and institutional features, and comparisons of the case-studies; as well as issues about the post-school context. They also provide the means of indicating theoretical and policy-orientated issues that the research attempts to draw attention to.

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The aim of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of primary teachers in Kuwait and to identify the factors which could hinder this effectiveness. To do this, the author chose to use the process-product criterion. The research begins by identifying the different teaching styles among primary teachers (process) and then relating them to pupil achievement (product) in order to discover which of the identified styles was more effective than the others. The study focused on teachers of Arabic Language, Science and Mathematics in Grades three and four. Several research methods were used, the main one being the questionnaire. Four hundred and ten questionnaires were distributed on a proportional, clustered, yet random basis. The data so gathered was then analysed using the cluster analysis technique. The results show that Kuwaiti primary teachers can be classified into four teaching styles, and the characteristics and the differences between the styles are discussed in detail. Furthermore, twenty respondent teachers were observed, five from each style, in order to identify the interaction between pupils and teachers, and also to validate some of the information gathered by the questionnaire. The data relating to the results achieved by pupils taught by 84 of the teachers in the four different styles was collected in two different periods (January and May). These results were analysed using the residual change score. The analysis showed that there were differences in pupil progress in the four teacher styles in that pupils who were taught by teachers in Style 2 achieved better results in Arabic Language and Science, and those who were taught by teachers in Style 4 obtained better results in Mathematics. The behaviours of the most successful teachers in the three subjects are discussed in detail and it was found that those teaching Arabic Language and Science presented behaviours, such as clearer lesson presentation, paying more attention to the entire class and being less inclined to use punishment and the threat of punishment to maintain control, while Style 4 teachers used class teaching more and were more inclined to use punishment and the threat of punishment in maintaining class control. Forty-eight teachers selected randomly were interviewed in an attempt to establish those factors which influence and hinder the effectiveness of primary teachers in the classroom. The main factors were considered. The direct factors were class size, teaching load, lack of modem teaching aids, and scarcity of in-service courses. The indirect factors were the low social status of teachers in the community, low salary, the school administration's maltreatment of teachers, lack of moral and material incentives, lack of parental co-operation, inaccurate assessment of teachers by their superiors, and the indifferent attitude of some teachers towards improving their teaching standards.

This study is the first of its kind undertaken in Colleges of Education in Portugal and has relied heavily on research evidence obtained from Europe, especially Great Britain, the United States and Canada. Until the mid 80s, primary school teachers were trained in Portugal in non-higher education schools - Escolas do Magisterio Primärio. Middle-school teachers were prepared only in Universities. In 1985/86 Colleges of Education were formed and started training Professores do Ensino Bdsico (primary and middle-school teachers) by means of curricula which were specified by Government for both primary and middle-school teachers during the first three years. The policy designed by the Ministry of Education, mainly through the Portaria No 352/86, is not considered to be the most appropriate means of contributing to the improvement of Portuguese teacher education. This is particularly true with regards to foreign language middle-school teacher education, since this subject was made subsidiary to core primary school teacher preparation. The present study analyses some of the effects of the policies created by the national educational authorities on FL middle-school teacher training in Colleges. It also examines the effects produced by the policies, structures and processes defined and implemented by some of these institutions in order to train middle-school language teachers. To attain this aim, the methodology for the study focused mainly on information obtained from: (1) one questionnaire administered to all the 4th year FL student teachers (157 students)a ttending the Portuguese/Frencha nd Portuguese/English courses in the public Colleges of Education in the year of 1991/92. This questionnaire served as the starting point from which all the relevant information gathered in the experimental and control group Colleges was contrasted and validated; (2) the observation of 64 lessons conducted by 16 experimental and control group College students in middle-schools within the framework of their practicum (from January through June 1992); (3) 47 interviews representative of the views expressed by College teachers, co-operating teachers and student teachers working in these two groups. In order to better contrast the data obtained from the experimental and control group Colleges, an experimental programme was designed by the researcher, the Programme Connections. This was implemented in two Colleges throughout the whole school year (1991/92). The Programme provided the teachers and the students in the experimental group Colleges with the conditions which enabled comparisons to be made with conventional programmes. Thus, part of the empirical research focuses on a comparison between these students trained through the Experimental Programme Connections and those who were not. The pros and cons of the two methods are then analysed accordingly and discussed in the light of recent findings from the literature. The findings indicate that the existing conventional programmes of training for modern language teachers needs to be changed in a number of ways. Thus, this study restates some of the current principles and practices underlying FL middle-school initial teacher training policies. As a result it is hoped that future teachers will: (1) reveal a better scientific and methodological preparation from their ITT courses; (2) begin their profession in a more confident manner; (3) help develop schools by acquiring a more comprehensive understanding of how these institutions really function. The study also calls attention to the need for more appropriate and better continuing education programmes.

The EInergence of History as a Subject within the PriInary Curricuhun during the Twentieth Century and its ImpleInentation in Schools in the late 1990s. The central concern of this thesis is that of curriculum change in relation to history as a subject within the primary school curriculum. The thesis documents changes which have occurred in the history curriculum during the last hundred years, and explores issues of curriculum control and teacher autonomy: who selects curriculum knowledge and on what basis is this selection made? Goodson's (1994) view that subjects are not' monolithic entities', is explored and changes and continuities within the primary history curriculum during the twentieth century are investigated. The thesis analyses official documents relating to the primary history discourse and situates them within prevailing educational ideologies and developments in historiography. U sing methodologies developed from the work of policy sociologists (Ozga: 1987, Ball: 1990, 1994), the thesis studies three contexts of policy creation and implementation relating to the history National Curriculum (Bowe & Ball: 1992). a) Within the context of influence, the thesis analyses the primary history discourse prior to the National Curriculum contextualising it within the political and educational debates relating to curriculum construction. A framework for the analysis of policy texts is developed which is used to trace the development of history as a curriculum subject throughout the twentieth century. The thesis explores Goodson' s (1994) claims that curriculum subjects have their origins in utilitarian concerns, which then move onto pedagogic and more academic justifications. Rationales for teaching history are analysed and located within different educational ideologies. The impact of changing rationales on the 'knowledge drift' of the content of the history curriculum and the developing pedagogy for history are also investigated. b) The context of text production evaluates the debates relating to the creation of the history National Curriculum and subsequent versions. The structure of the National Curriculum and its implications for primary school curriculum organisation is considered. The work of the History Working Group and its recommendations for primary school history are discussed. The History Final Report is analysed in detail as a source of evidence of official views on the history curriculum and also in terms of the earlier traditions of history education, identified in the preceding chapters. Modifications to the history National Curriculum are considered, alongside interpretations from different agencies which reveal the dynamic relationship between policy construction and implementation. The roles of agencies such as the National Curriculum Council (NCC), Schools Examination and Assessment Council (SEAC), Schools Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) and Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) are considered and their influenceon the National Curriculum analysed, alongside the roles played by commercial publishers and the Historical Association. In addition, the production of history texts is also investigated within broader educational contexts such as the Report of the Three Wise Men (Alexander, Rose & Woodhead: 1992), the curriculum review led by Lord Dearing (DFE: 1995) and the development of the Labour party's educational policies following their election victory in 1997 (DfEE: 1997a). c) Within the context of practice the thesis investigates the ways in which primary school teachers interpret the history National Curriculum within their own beliefs and values, and the impact of their different interpretations within the classroom. Interview data provide evidence of the variety of experiences which influence teachers' views of history. Different emphases which individual teachers place on various aspects of history are analysed within Evans' (1994) model of history teachers, which categorises teachers as storytellers, scientists and relativist reformers. Primary teachers' management of history as a subject within the primary curriculum is also explored and considered alongside the range of competing interests present in primary schools. The thesis combines documentary data with accounts by teachers of their beliefs and practices. In this way, links between the macro and micro spheres of policy making are identified. Thus the thesis provides insights into the extent to which central policy can be imposed on compliant teachers and the extent to which primary teachers mediate change, becoming 'policy makers in practice' (Croll: 1996). This study of curriculum history provides illuminative insights into contemporary educational concerns as they are contextualised through a broader timespan. It also contributes one example of the continuing evolution of a school subject within the primary curriculum and provides an interesting case study which might be used to analyse developments in other subject areas.

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