Bi-level programming techniques are developed for decentralized decision problems with decision makers located in a two-level decision making system; the upper decision maker is termed the leader while the lower is the follower. Both the leader and the follower try to optimise their own objective functions and the corresponding decisions do not control but do affect those of the other level. This research aims at solving bi-level decision problems with five extensions, i.e. multiple leaders/followers/objectives, fuzzy coefficients and goals. By using particle swarm optimisation and/or cut set and/or goal programming and/or Nash equilibrium concept, related mathematical models and corresponding algorithms are developed to solve fuzzy linear bi-level decision problems, fuzzy linear multi-objective bi-level decision problems, fuzzy linear multi-follower multi-objective bi-level decision problems, fuzzy linear goal bi-level decision problems, multi-leader one-follower bi-level decision problems, one-leader multi-follower bi-level decision problems, and multileader multi-follower bi-level decision problems. A fuzzy bi-level decision support system is then developed which implements all the algorithms to support bi-level decision making with different features. Finally, by using these bi-level models and algorithms, we explore possible applications in the fields of railway train set organisation, railway wagon flow management, strategic bidding in the electricity market, and supply chains to solve real world bi-level decision problems. The results of experiments show that the models and algorithms are effective for solving real world bi-level decision problems.

This thesis critically assesses the literature on strategic management accounting that is budgeting and corporate governance and also the managerial decision-making literature (primarily in the areas of strategic planning and change management). It is essentially a theory building and analytical thesis utilising a critical social science approach. The main aim is the construction of a collaborative theory of decision-making and associated methodology that will underpin and explain a more ‘robust’ construction of decision outcomes within an individual organizational context. In doing so it evaluates and synthesises Habermas’s theory of communicative action with the intention of incorporating key elements as well as insights from Latour, complexity theory and Peirce in relation to doubt-driven inquiry in a proposed collaboratively oriented theory of organizational decision enhancement (ODE). ODE theory is argued to be widely applicable in the decision-making process utilised by organizations (private, public and non-profit). The claims implicit within the theory and its associated decision-making methodology are assessed empirically at the strategic planning level. This was part of an action research project commenced in July 2001 with Tertiary Institution’s current strategic planning round covering the planning time horizon 2003-2007. ODE theory postulates that effective decision-making in a world of uncertainty is best undertaken in a practical and collaborative group process. The theory, that I have derived, is stated as follows: Optimal decision-making which a particular group of decision makers can construct in a world of uncertainty and risk is a pragmatic, recursive and democratised process. The process minimises the role of individual power, authority, self-interest and ego. This collaborative approach focuses on the force of the ‘better argument’, utilises constructive conflict (CC) and continuous, conscious, collaborative adaptation (CCCA) and results in the selection and monitoring of a ‘best-option’ decision outcome. The theory minimises the role of power and authority, focuses on the Habermasian concept of the force of the ‘better argument’, maximises the utility of resistance to change and results in the selection of a ‘best-alternative’ option that is subjected to a rigorous, performance measure-based monitoring feedback loop. In so doing this thesis extends significantly the earlier extant literature on organizational decision-making. It effectively revisits the notion of teams and groups in the organizational context and argues for organizations to seriously consider ‘reengineering’ the decision-making methodology and approach to one that necessitates effective devolution and delegation of decision-making powers. I argue that organizations should allow for and promote a ‘cascade’ effect to let control, power, authority and collective responsibility filter down through the organizational layers. Effectiveness and not efficiency (falsely perceived as timely) should be the aim of well-constructed decision outcomes. The adaptability and self-organising capability of the workforce requires an inclusive, not exclusive, decision-making methodology to unlock and realise the full future potential of the organization.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 1998. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 153-157). Available also in a digital version from Dissertation Abstracts.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Duke University, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references.

One purpose of the dissertation was to determine what theoretical justification exists to support the description of problem recognition. Homeostatsis was found to be a well documented and accepted theory of tension reduction in both physiology and psychology. It was proposed as a proper theoretical foundation for problem recognition. It also implied that people develop styles as they repeatedly deal with similar problems. Another purpose of the dissertation was to develop a method for typifying consumers in the way they recognize problems. Scales were constructed to measure consumers' tendencies to recognize problems due to a change in one of their states. Three scales were developed: one to measure types sensitive to changes in the desired state, one to measure types sensitive to changes in the actual state, and a combined scale to measure tendencies to recognize problems due to changes in either state. The product category chosen to test the scales was clothing. The results indicated that all scales were extremely reliable and moderately valid.

The objective of this research is to explore the extent to which current models of decision-making and entrepreneurial cognition are relevant to a sample of true novice entrepreneurs, those who are in the process of founding their first business venture. Novice entrepreneurs are recognised as being essential to sustaining the entrepreneurial churn in economies (Disney, Haskel & Heden, 2003) especially as the young firm population requires new entrants. The need arises because of the high rates of churning observed in populations of young firms that require a constant inflow of new ventures to renew the stock of businesses (Ganguly, 1985). Whilst some studies of the behaviour of entrepreneurs do focus on relatively young firms (e.g. Chandler, DeTienne, McKelvie, & Mumford, 2011) studies of true novice entrepreneurs are rare. The thesis seeks to address this gap in the literature. A sample of true novice entrepreneurs, that founded businesses in 2013 and 2014, is interviewed to explore their decision-making and cognition regarding a realistic new business case study. The approach replicates that used by other authors who have studied expert entrepreneurs (Sarasvathy, 2001; Sarasvathy, 2008; Chandler et al., 2011; Dew, Read, Sarasvathy & Wiltbank, 2009) using a think-aloud protocol to identify causation and effectuation styles. However, by using a mixed methods approach of concurrent and retrospective think-aloud aspects it was possible to identify novice decision-making and to capture the prior experiences that they referred to (Banks, Stanton & Harvey, 2014). The sample of 32 true novices was a randomised sub-set of 1128 business founders in the UK. The experimental protocol enabled a comparison with alternative expertise theories of feedback and linear thinking in decision-making (Winch & Maytorena, 2009). The key findings were contrary to the hypotheses; the true novices were both more effectual and more casual than expected; and furthermore were frequently using feedback loops in their decision-making. In addition, as the novice entrepreneurs reflected upon their experiences that informed their decisions, the literature predicts that novice entrepreneurs would have to adopt analytical approaches to decision making as they lack salient experiences to inform their decisions in the early years of trading. However, contrary to expectations, the novices used both analogical and heuristic sense-making approaches and were adept at switching between them (Jones & Casulli, 2014). The outcome of the experimental protocol offers insights into the extent to which the current literature captures the decision-making processes and entrepreneurial cognition of true novice entrepreneurs. The evidence is mixed, offering the opportunity for further refinement of existing theoretical constructs, and reinforcing the relevance of alternative theories of cognition and decision making for novice entrepreneurs, for government policies and the support networks and that provide resources to assist the creation and survival of new entrepreneurial ventures. In addition, for novice entrepreneurs, this research examined the relevance and influence of their prior experiences and emotions on their entrepreneurial decision-making. In founding their first business, the prediction for novices is that they would struggle to draw on appropriate experiences (Mathias, Williams & Smith, 2015). However, the results showed novices referencing a wide variety of experiences, with the majority of these based on personal events that they had directly experienced either in their current start-up or previous work activity. Emotions are believed to influence entrepreneurs’ abilities to cope with uncertainty in business decision making and to persist in their endeavours in the face of adverse experiences and entrepreneurs are predicted to be over optimistic (Koellinger, Minniti & Schade, 2007; Ucbasaran, Westhead, Wright & Flores, 2010). The research profiled the novices’ emotions using the internationally externally validated PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect) scale (Watson, Clark & Tellegan, 1988) and the findings showed the novices engaged consistently with their underlying trait emotions however, interestingly, they were not statistically more optimistic than the UK population (Thompson, 2007). The findings make a contribution to both the theoretical explanations and practical aspects of novice entrepreneurship and show the appropriateness of relating current research to widely used measures from other fields of study, particularly as the impact of emotions is currently influencing the future of entrepreneurship research (Cardon, Foo, Shepherd & Wiklund, 2012; Shepherd, 2015).

This research explores the online purchase decision-making behaviour of consumers by introducing a comprehensive approach that covers two different viewpoints: a) individual-level behaviour and b) market-level behaviour. Individual-level behaviour enhances our understanding of how purchase decision-making processes unfold and whether they differ for different individuals. Drawing from decision analysis and consumer behaviour literature, four segments of online consumers are introduced based on two individual factors: decision making style and knowledge of the product. Archetypal behaviour of each segment is identified addressing variations in the process and process outcome for different groups. In addition, market-level behaviour investigates the actual behaviour of consumers in relation with different retailers in the market; it is based on the aggregated behaviour of 60,000 individuals. Not only behaviour in a particular website but also cross-visiting behaviour of consumers comparing multiple retailers is examined. For this purpose, a multi-level mixed-method approach is designed. Video recording sessions, think-aloud method, interviews and questionnaires are used to capture the dynamic decision-making process, segment consumers and measure the outcome of the process at individual level. Business process modeling approach and an adaptation of path configuration method are selected for modelling the process. Data from an Internet panel data provider, comScore, is analyzed to explore the market-behaviour of consumers visiting multiple retailers. A set of measurement frameworks, that have been developed to fully exploit the research potential of Internet panel data, are designed for this research. Two sectors of banking and mobile network providers are selected; this research methodology enables a much more detailed evaluation of online behaviour and can be applied in other consumer markets.A conceptual model of online purchase decision making is proposed synthesizing theory from three disciplines: consumer behaviour, decision analysis and Information Systems. This model is able to explain the complexities and dynamic nature of real-life decision-making processes. The results of individual-level analysis show that the synthesized model has an enhanced descriptive power. Purchase decision-making processes in the two sectors appear to be highly complex with a large number of iterations, being more unstructured in banking sector. The process is found to be influenced by the both individual characteristics and each segment exhibits a certain typology of behaviour. Behaviour in terms of the way stages are performed is identical across the two sectors; whereas it differs in relation to intensity of decision-making cycles, duration of the process and the process outcome, being a function of product/ market characteristics.The findings of market-level analysis revealed that banking websites are preliminary visited for using online banking services; despite the high portion of visitors, the intensity of research in these websites is low. On the contrary, mobile network providers attract a higher portion of consumers with purchase intentions and enjoy more intensive research. Consumers have a small consideration set in both sectors; and consider certain banks/providers rather than using the accessibility of all alterative on the Internet. It is evident that comparison sites play an important role in both markets affecting the behaviour of online consumers. Finally, the research stresses the use of the Internet as a complementary channel offering specific benefits in each sector.

This study is concerned with understanding decision-making in relation to out-of-authority educational placements for pupils with an Autistic Spectrum Condition (ASC) in one Local Authority (LA). The aims of this research were twofold. The first was to explore what factors have the greatest impact on the decision to educate pupils with an ASC outside the local authority. The second was to explore the perceptions of key informants about the process for deciding those placements. The study involved examining 24 pupil cases where out-of-authority ASC placements had been agreed and interviews with case-informants contributing to those placement decisions in order to analyse their beliefs and understandings about the processes of decision-making. The literature review highlights the limited research with regard to decision-making about pupils with Special Educational Needs (SEN) and draws examples from medical decision-making frameworks. Data analysis showed that two factors, complexity and range of pupil need and lack of LA provision to match the needs identified had the greatest influence on the decision to educate pupils outside the local authority. The response of the LA’s own schools, professionals and parents to those presenting needs as well as the consequent impact on the child/young person and others were recognised secondary factors. Case-informants offered a strong impression that for the majority of these pupils successful inclusion in their own LA would require increased and more integrated services in order to meet their identified needs. Data from the qualitative interviews provides a sense of the range of informants’ experiences relating to decision-making processes and the factors determining those perceptions. These related to whether the processes had been experienced as planned, were evidenced-based, child-focused and involved effective working with parents and other agencies. The findings, in part, reflect government concerns about the current statutory SEN framework and the case for change as made in the recent Green Paper (DfE, 2011). At a local level informants identified the need for a more explicit model of decision-making, ethically grounded with an emphasis for decision-making to be based on the holistic needs of the child and viewed that this would be better facilitated by having improved joint-working between services and stronger partnership engagement between the LA and parents/carers. Clinical professional-patient shared decision-making is discussed as a potential model which might be usefully applied to better understand and develop current SEN decision making.

A thesis submitted in fulfilment for the degree Doctor of Education in the Department of Educational Psychology and Special Education in the Faculty of Education at the University of Zululand, 2004. / This study examined the practice of participative decision making (POM) at South African universities. The first aim was to investigate the extent to which these institutions practice participative decision making. The second aim was to establish whether certain managers' characteristics influence the practice of participative decision making. The third aim sought to determine whether there is any difference among institutions in the practice of participative decision making. Finally, the fourth aim was to determine whether there is any association among ranks assigned by adjudicators/respondents to six participative decision making (POM) steps. To this end a research instrument called a questionnaire, was designed and used to achieve these aims. Moreover, this research instrument, after construction by the researcher, was validated by means of factor analysis (FA). The research instrument was first administered as a pilot sample of one hundred and twenty managers at the University of Zululand's main and Ourban-Umlazi Campuses. The final instrument was administered to a sample of managers at universities in the whole country. Two hundred and twenty-six (226) managers completed and returned iv questionnaires. The two hundred and twenty-six questionnaires were to be correctly analyzed. Each of the aims was tied to a null hypothesis and an alternative one. All in all, eight hypotheses were formulated. The Chi-square (x2) one sample test was employed to test for managers' perceptions about participative decision making (PDM). The outcome was that managers hold negative perceptions about participative decision making. This leads to the conclusion that university managers do not practice participative decision making (PDM). The difference between those who hold positive perception (52.20/0) and negative perception (47.480/0) were not statistically significant. The second hypothesis which addressed the second aim was tested by means of a Chi-square one sample test as well as in all variables of this aim. It was found that gender has a positive relationship with regards to decision making, as perceived by the managers. So, gender was found to be statistically significant. However, the rest, such as, age, experience, religion, rank, and type of institution, were perceived by managers to have no relationship with the practice of participative decision making (POM). v / University of Zululand

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / A quasi-experimental design was undertaken to explore the possibility of utilizing electrodermal activity as a marker of intuitive decision making in nursing. This study compared 11 senior female nursing students to 10 female nurses with more than five years of nursing experience completing a clinical decision making task utilizing MicroSim© program software while measuring skin conductance response (SCR). The clinical decision making task chosen was based on the cognitive continuum theory. The somatic marker hypothesis is also a theoretical base for this study. This theory suggests that physiological markers are present during decision making. An independent t-test was conducted in SPSS comparing the total number of skin conductance responses generated and overall score in the card task and clinical scenario between the two groups. According to the Somatic Marker Hypothesis, the researcher’s definition of intuition, and the results of this experiment, SCR generation shows promise as a marker of intuitive decision making in nursing.