In recent decades, the concept of ecosystem services has deepened our appreciation of the myriad benefits provided by ecosystems, and the risks to human societies posed by ecosystem degradation. There is a growing realisation that problems traditionally considered to be outside the environmental policy arena are in truth strongly connected to the environment: ecosystems underlie issues spanning climate, energy, food, water, urban planning, human health, economic development, social justice, and national security. Payments for ecosystem services (PES) create positive financial incentives for the protection and restoration of ecosystems, and represent one way to better represent the value of ecosystem services across a range of sectors. PES schemes are gaining traction in climate mitigation and biodiversity protection strategies, and most of all in the water sector. PES is complementing traditional approaches to water management and helping to address deteriorating water quality, declining water flows, and flooding. This thesis takes a legal perspective, examining the role of legal frameworks in the design and administration of PES. It focuses on PES aimed at protecting freshwater ecosystem services, and considers how legal frameworks can incorporate PES into strategies for drinking water provision. It examines an emerging body of law relating directly to PES, and provides an opportunity to consider some of the leading examples of the ES concept being reflected in law. It distinguishes three broad categories of legal frameworks that establish, regulate or enable PES. A comparative methodology is applied to an analysis of case studies of legal frameworks for PES from: Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, New York, England and Ontario. This analysis draws out conclusions about how the law relates to key policy issues around ES and PES, and different approaches to developing legal frameworks to guide PES, depending on different contexts and policy objectives.

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This thesis presents estimates of capital flight from Ukraine in the period 1994 to 2017. We use the World Bank Residual method to calculate capital flight as a residual difference between sources and uses of funds in the economy. Our findings show that pre-2014, capital flight amounted to 7.5 billion USD on average. On the contrary, in 2014 our method reports unrecorded capital inflow of 10.7 billion USD, which took place in times of economic recession and military conflict in the east of Ukraine. We analyze the factors that might have caused reverse capital flight, and consider that increase in remittance flows, growth of the black currency market and new niches in the underground economy might have had an effect on unrecorded capital inflows. Finally, we study the components of the World Bank Residual method, and suggest that capital flight might have taken forms that the method doesn't encompass. Therefore, we underline the importance of accounting for gaps in the method by adding trade misinvoicing estimates to capital flight volumes. Keywords Ukraine, Capital Flight, World Bank Residual Method, Balance of Payments, Shadow Economy Range of thesis: 89 886 Characters

Les paiements informels (PI) sont des sommes d’argent supportées par les patients, ou exigées indument par le personnel sanitaire, à l’occasion d’une prestation de soins qui est pourtant censée être prise en charge. Dans les systèmes de soins publics des pays en développement (PED), ces paiements constituent une pratique courante. Puisque ces systèmes de santé sont souvent réputés pour être peu efficients, nous proposons dans cette étude une analyse des possibles liens entre le versement de PI et l’efficience d’un système de santé. Dans la première partie de ce travail, nous mettons en évidence une corrélation négative entre les PI et l’efficience du système de soins : à des taux élevés de PI sont typiquement associées de faibles performances sanitaires. Nous expliquons qu’il est par conséquent légitime de penser qu’une réduction des niveaux de PI entrainerait une amélioration des prestations fournies ou/et une réduction des dépenses sanitaires. Dès lors, il semble pertinent d’examiner les motifs qui poussent les patients et le personnel sanitaire à s’adonner à des paiements informels. Nous explorons cette voie en partant d’une analyse coût-bénéfice. Pour cette dernière, quatre déterminants majeurs de la conduite de l’agent seront identifiés au cours de cette analyse : le salaire, les conditions physiques de travail, la responsabilité légale et les normes sociales. Partant du postulat que l’agent ne changera d’attitude que si un comportement intègre lui procure au moins autant de satisfaction qu’un comportement opportuniste (corrompu), nous déduisons de cela quelques pistes susceptibles de réduire le versement de PI. / Informal payments (IP) are sums of money paid voluntarily by patients, or unduly demanded by medical staff, for the provision of care that is supposed to be already financed. In the public healthcare systems of developing countries (DC), these payments are a common practice. Since these healthcare systems are often considered to be inefficient, we propose in this study an analysis of the possible links between the payment of IP and the efficiency of a healthcare system.In the first part of this work, we highlight a negative correlation between IPs and the efficiency of the healthcare system: high levels of IP are typically associated with poor health outcomes. We explain that it is therefore legitimate to think that a reduction in IP levels would improve the services provided or / and a reduction in health expenditure.If one wishes to reduce IPs, it seems relevant to examine the reasons that push patients and health personnel to indulge in informal payments. In the second part of this work, we explore this path from a cost-benefit analysis. Hence, four major determinants of the agent's behavior are identified: wages, physical working conditions, legal accountability and social norms. Starting from the premise that the agent will change his attitude only if a behavior of integrity gives him at least as much satisfaction as a corrupted behavior , we deduce from this some strategies likely to reduce IPs.

<p>A majority of the payments that are carried out today are executed through the electronic payment systems. Payments that are executed through these systems are administrated by payment service providers, these providers are, in general, banks. In spite of the socio-economic importance of payments and payment intermediation, there is an uncertainty regarding the legal status of payments and payment intermediation. Some describe payment intermediation as transport of means of payments, while some describe it in terms of claims and intermediation of information. There is, in other words, a need for clarification. </p><p>Since the international trade is increasing, more and more payments are made to receivers abroad. The trade with Germany is very important for Sweden. </p><p>Therefore, it can be an advantage for Swedish tradesmen, who are involved in businesses with German tradesmen, to know of the differences between Swedish and German law, when it comes to payments and payment intermediation. Also, in international trade, situations can occur that generally do not occur in domestic trade. EC-law must as well be taken into consideration, when discussing international payment intermediation between Sweden and Germany. I have in the thesis described the German legal system, in general features, and I have also made a brief outline of the Swedish international private law regulations that can be applied to a payment intermediation between Sweden and Germany. I have furthermore given a brief description of the relevant EC- regulations and -directives, in order to see to what extent a harmonization has been made, regarding payments and payment intermediation. </p><p>One of my conclusions, after having studied Swedish, German and international law, is that when the sender of a payment wants to execute a payment through the payment systems, he gives the sending bank a commission to transfer a certain amount to the receiver. In return, the sender denounces claims towards the bank, equivalent to that amount. The sending bank then gives the receiving bank a commission to credit the receiver’s account. In return, the receiving bank obtains compensation from the sending bank. The commission is final when the correct account has been credited with the correct amount at the correct time by the correct sender. I have further come to the conclusion that the receiver’s claim towards the receiving bank arises already when the receiving bank acquires the commission from the sending bank, and not when the receiver’s account is being credited. </p><p>I have thoroughly studied payments and payment intermediation according to both Swedish and German law, in order to see whether there are any differences between the legal systems. I have concluded, that there is a major difference in determining at what point of time a payment has been made, and therefore also whether the sender is in delay with the payment or not. According to Swedish law, the point of time when the receiver’s account is being credited is decisive. According to German law, at first hand, the point of time when the sender gives the commission to the sending bank is decisive. Another important difference is which legal relations the participators have with each other. In Swedish law, this matter has not been closely discussed, while in German law, in harmony with EC-law, the matter has been thoroughly analysed. The legal relations, concerning a payment intermediation, are to be regarded separately. This implies that the sender does not have legal relations with any other participant in the payment intermediation, for instance the receiving bank. I find that this model also is applicable to Swedish conditions.</p>

A majority of the payments that are carried out today are executed through the electronic payment systems. Payments that are executed through these systems are administrated by payment service providers, these providers are, in general, banks. In spite of the socio-economic importance of payments and payment intermediation, there is an uncertainty regarding the legal status of payments and payment intermediation. Some describe payment intermediation as transport of means of payments, while some describe it in terms of claims and intermediation of information. There is, in other words, a need for clarification. Since the international trade is increasing, more and more payments are made to receivers abroad. The trade with Germany is very important for Sweden. Therefore, it can be an advantage for Swedish tradesmen, who are involved in businesses with German tradesmen, to know of the differences between Swedish and German law, when it comes to payments and payment intermediation. Also, in international trade, situations can occur that generally do not occur in domestic trade. EC-law must as well be taken into consideration, when discussing international payment intermediation between Sweden and Germany. I have in the thesis described the German legal system, in general features, and I have also made a brief outline of the Swedish international private law regulations that can be applied to a payment intermediation between Sweden and Germany. I have furthermore given a brief description of the relevant EC- regulations and -directives, in order to see to what extent a harmonization has been made, regarding payments and payment intermediation. One of my conclusions, after having studied Swedish, German and international law, is that when the sender of a payment wants to execute a payment through the payment systems, he gives the sending bank a commission to transfer a certain amount to the receiver. In return, the sender denounces claims towards the bank, equivalent to that amount. The sending bank then gives the receiving bank a commission to credit the receiver’s account. In return, the receiving bank obtains compensation from the sending bank. The commission is final when the correct account has been credited with the correct amount at the correct time by the correct sender. I have further come to the conclusion that the receiver’s claim towards the receiving bank arises already when the receiving bank acquires the commission from the sending bank, and not when the receiver’s account is being credited. I have thoroughly studied payments and payment intermediation according to both Swedish and German law, in order to see whether there are any differences between the legal systems. I have concluded, that there is a major difference in determining at what point of time a payment has been made, and therefore also whether the sender is in delay with the payment or not. According to Swedish law, the point of time when the receiver’s account is being credited is decisive. According to German law, at first hand, the point of time when the sender gives the commission to the sending bank is decisive. Another important difference is which legal relations the participators have with each other. In Swedish law, this matter has not been closely discussed, while in German law, in harmony with EC-law, the matter has been thoroughly analysed. The legal relations, concerning a payment intermediation, are to be regarded separately. This implies that the sender does not have legal relations with any other participant in the payment intermediation, for instance the receiving bank. I find that this model also is applicable to Swedish conditions.

La tesi analizza l'evoluzione storico normativa del rapporto di pubblico impiego concentrando l'attenzione sul trattamento economico, principalmente quello accessorio, esaminando le principali vicende della contrattazione collettiva in conseguenza della c.d. privatizzazione. / Analyses how salaries in the public sector are composed: one part is fixed and the other is variable. The variable element is an innovation from 1993, and may be linked to "payment by results".

This study investigates the domestic and external determinants of net capital flows to Turkey. The results of the Johansen cointegration analyses indicate that capital flows to Turkey increase in response to increases in domestic real interest rate, domestic real income growth, and budget balance / appreciation of domestic currency / and decreases in financial fragility and the US real interest rates. It can be said that, higher domestic real returns and improved country creditworthiness attract more foreign capital flows to Turkey. In addition, the decreases in world interest rates enable Turkey to enjoy higher capital flows. The findings are theory consistent and data-acceptable.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Wollongong, 2009. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references: leaf 172-197.