Ground vehicles are subjected to crosswind from various origins such as weather, topography of the ambient environment (land, forest, tunnels, high bushes...) or surrounding traffic. The trend of lowering the weight of vehicles imposes a stronger need for understanding the coupling between crosswind stability, the vehicle external shape and the dynamic properties. Means for reducing fuel consumption of ground vehicles can also conflict with the handling and dynamic characteristics of the vehicle. Streamlined design of vehicle shapes to lower the drag can be a good example of this dilemma. If care is not taken, the streamlined shape can lead to an increase in yaw moment under crosswind conditions which results in a poor handling. The development of numerical methods provides efficient tools to investigate these complex phenomena that are difficult to reproduce experimentally. Time accurate and scale resolving methods, like Detached-Eddy Simulations (DES), are particularly of interest, since they allow a better description of unsteady flows than standard Reynolds Average Navier-Stokes (RANS) models. Moreover, due to the constant increase in computational resources, this type of simulations complies more and more with industrial interests and design cycles. In this thesis, the possibilities offered by DES to simulate unsteady crosswind aerodynamics of simple vehicle models in an industrial framework are explored. A large part of the work is devoted to the grid design, which is especially crucial for truthful results from DES. Additional concerns in simulations of unsteady crosswind aerodynamics are highlighted, especially for the resolution of the wind-gust boundary layer profiles. Finally, the transient behaviour of the aerodynamic loads and the flow structures are analyzed for several types of vehicles. The results simulated with DES are promising and the overall agreement with the experimental data available is good, which illustrates a certain reliability in the simulations. In addition, the simulations show that the force coefficients exhibit highly transient behaviour under gusty conditions. / ECO2 Crosswind Stability and Unsteady Aerodynamics for Ground Vehicles

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<p>The present dissertation focuses on the numerical solution of compressible flows with an emphasis on simulations of transitional hypersonic boundary layers. Initially, general concepts such as the governing equations, numerical approximations and theoretical modeling strategies are addressed. These are used as a basis to introduce two innovative techniques, the Quasi-Spectral Viscosity (QSV) method, applied to high-order finite difference settings and the Legendre Spectral Viscosity (LSV) approach, used in high-order flux reconstruction schemes. Such techniques are derived based on the mathematical formalism of the filtered compressible Navier-Stokes equations. While the latter perspective is only typically used for turbulence modeling in the context of Large-Eddy Simulations (LES), both the QSV and LSV subfilter scale (SFS) closure models are capable of performing simulations in the presence of shock-discontinuities. On top of that, the QSV approach is also shown to support dynamic subfilter turbulence modeling capabilities.</p> <p>QSV’s innovation lies in the introduction of a physical-space implementation of a spectral-like subfilter scale (SFS) dissipation term by leveraging residuals of filter operations, achiev- ing two goals: (1) estimating the energy of the resolved solution near the grid cutoff; (2) imposing a plateau-cusp shape to the spectral distribution of the added dissipation. The QSV approach was tested in a variety of flows to showcase its capability to act interchangeably as a shock capturing method or as a SFS turbulence closure. QSV performs well compared to previous eddy-viscosity closures and shock capturing methods. In a supersonic TGV flow, a case which exhibits shock/turbulence interactions, QSV alone outperforms the simple super- position of separate numerical treatments for SFS turbulence and shocks. QSV’s combined capability of simulating shocks and turbulence independently, as well as simultaneously, effectively achieves the unification of shock capturing and Large-Eddy Simulation.</p> <p>The LSV method extends the QSV idea to discontinuous numerical schemes making it suitable for unstructured solvers. LSV exploits the set of hierarchical basis functions formed by the Legendre polynomials to extract the information on the energy content near the resolution limit and estimate the overall magnitude of the required SFS dissipative terms, resulting in a scheme that dynamically activates only in cells where nonlinear behavior is important. Additionally, the modulation of such terms in the Legendre spectral space allows for the concentration of the dissipative action at small scales. The proposed method is tested in canonical shock-dominated flow setups in both one and two dimensions. These include the 1D Burgers’ problem, a 1D shock tube, a 1D shock-entropy wave interaction, a 2D inviscid shock-vortex interaction and a 2D double Mach reflection. Results showcase a high-degree of resolution power, achieving accurate results with a small number of degrees of freedom, and robustness, being able to capture shocks associated with the Burgers’ equation and the 1D shock tube within a single cell with discretization orders 120 and higher.</p> <p>After the introduction of these methods, the QSV-LES approach is leveraged to perform numerical simulations of hypersonic boundary layer transition delay on a 7^◦-half-angle cone for both sharp and 2.5 mm-nose tip radii due to porosity representative of carbon-fibre-reinforced carbon-matrix ceramics (C/C) in the Reynolds number range Re_m = 2.43 · 106 – 6.40 · 10⁶ m⁻¹ at the freestream Mach number of M_∞ = 7.4. A low-order impedance model was fitted through experimental measurements of acoustic absorption taken at discrete frequencies yielding a continuous representation in the frequency domain that was imposed in the simulations via a broadband time domain impedance boundary condition (TDIBC). The stability of the base flow is studied over impermeable and porous walls via pulse-perturbed axisymmetric simulations with second-mode spatial growth rates matching linear predictions. This shows that the QSV-LES approach is able to dynamically deactivate its dissipative action in laminar portions of the flow making it possible to accurately capture the boundary layer’s instability dynamics. Three-dimensional transitional LES were then performed with the introduction of grid independent pseudorandom pressure perturbations. Comparison against previous experiments were made regarding the frequency content of the disturbances in the transitional region with fairly good agreement capturing the shift to lower frequencies. Such shift is caused by the formation of near-wall low-temperature streaks that concentrate the pressure disturbances at locations with locally thicker boundary layers forming trapped wavetrains that can persist into the turbulent region. Additionally, it is shown that the presence of a porous wall representative of a C/C material does not affect turbulence significantly and simply shifts its onset downstream.</p>

Coal gasification and combustion can introduce contaminants in the solid or molten state depending on the gas clean up procedures used, coal composition and operating conditions. These byproducts when combined with high temperatures and high gas stream velocities can cause Deposition, Erosion, and Corrosion (DEC) of turbine components downstream of the combustor section. The objective of this dissertation is to use computational techniques to investigate the dynamics of ash deposition in a leading edge vane geometry with film cooling. Large Eddy Simulations (LES) is used to model the flow field of the coolant jet-mainstream interaction and the deposition of syngas ash in the leading edge region of a turbine vane is modeled using a Lagrangian framework. The three row leading edge vane geometry is modeled as a symmetric semi-cylinder with a flat afterbody. One row of coolant holes is located along the stagnation line and the other two rows of coolant holes are located at ±21.3° from the stagnation line. The coolant is injected at 45° to the vane surface with 90° compound angle injection. The coolant to mainstream density ratio is set to unity and the freestream Reynolds number based on leading edge diameter is 32000. Coolant to mainstream blowing ratios (B.R.) of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 are investigated. It is found that the stagnation cooling jets penetrate much further into the mainstream, both in the normal and lateral directions, than the off-stagnation jets for all blowing ratios. Jet dilution is characterized by turbulent diffusion and entrainment. The strength of both mechanisms increases with blowing ratio. The adiabatic effectiveness in the stagnation region initially increases with blowing ratio but then generally decreases as the blowing ratio increases further. Immediately downstream of off-stagnation injection, the adiabatic effectiveness is highest at B.R.=0.5. However, in spite of the larger jet penetration and dilution at higher blowing ratios, the larger mass of coolant injected increases the effectiveness with blowing ratio further downstream of injection location. A novel deposition model which integrates different sources of published experimental data to form a holistic numerical model is developed to predict ash deposition. The deposition model computes the ash sticking probabilities as a function of particle temperature and ash composition. This deposition model is validated with available experimental results on a flat plate inclined at 45°. Subsequently, this model was then used to study ash deposition in a leading edge vane geometry with film cooling for coolant to mainstream blowing ratios of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0. Ash particle sizes of 5, 7, 10μm are considered. Under the conditions of the current simulations, ash particles have Stokes numbers less than unity of O(1) and hence are strongly affected by the flow and thermal fields generated by the coolant interaction with the main-stream. Because of this, the stagnation coolant jets are successful in pushing and/or cooling the particles away from the surface and minimizing deposition and erosion in the stagnation region. Capture efficiency for eight different ash compositions are investigated. Among all the ash samples, ND ash sample shows the highest capture efficiency due to its low softening temperature. A trend that is common to all particle sizes is that the percentage capture efficiency is least for blowing ratio of 1.5 as the coolant is successful in pushing the particles away from the surface. However, further increasing the blowing ratio to 2.0, the percentage capture efficiency increases as more number of particles are transported to the surface by strong mainstream entrainment by the coolant jets. / Ph. D.

Jet engines often operate under dirty conditions where large amounts of particulate matter can be ingested, especially, sand, ash and dirt. Particulate matter in different engine components can lead to degradation in performance. The objective of this dissertation is to investigate sand transport and deposition in the internal cooling passages of turbine blades. A simplified rectangular geometry is simulated to mimic the flow field, heat transfer and particle transport in a two pass internal cooling geometry. Two major challenges are identified while trying to simulate particle deposition. First, no reliable particle-wall collision model is available to calculate energy losses during a particle wall interaction. Second, available deposition models for particle deposition do not take into consideration all the impact parameters like impact velocity, impact angle, and particle temperature. These challenges led to the development of particle wall collision and deposition models in the current study. First a preliminary simulation is carried out to investigate sand transport and impingement patterns in the two pass geometry by using an idealized elastic collision model with the walls of the duct without any deposition. Wall Modeled Large Eddy Simulations (WMLES) are carried to calculate the flow field and a Lagrangian approach is used for particle transport. The outcome of these simulations was to get a qualitative comparison with experimental visualizations of the impingement patterns in the two pass geometry. The results showed good agreement with experimental distributions and identified surfaces most prone to deposition in the two pass geometry. The initial study is followed by the development of a particle-wall collision model based on elastic-plastic deformation and adhesion forces by building on available theories of deformation and adhesion for a spherical contact with a flat surface. The model calculates deformation losses and adhesion losses from particle-wall material properties and impact parameters and is broadly applicable to spherical particles undergoing oblique impact with a rigid wall. The model is shown to successfully predict the general trends observed in experiments. To address the issue of predicting deposition, an improved physical model based on the critical viscosity approach and energy losses during particle-wall collisions is developed to predict the sand deposition at high temperatures in gas turbine components. The model calculates a sticking or deposition probability based on the energy lost during particle collision and the proximity of the particle temperature to the softening temperature. For validation purposes, the deposition of sand particles is computed for particle laden jet impingement on a coupon and compared with experiments conducted at Virginia Tech. Large Eddy Simulations are used to calculate the flow field and heat transfer and particle dynamics is modeled using a Lagrangian approach. The results showed good agreement with the experiments for the range of jet temperatures investigated. Finally the two pass geometry is revisited with the developed particle-wall collision and deposition model. Sand transport and deposition is investigated in a two pass internal cooling geometry at realistic engine conditions. LES calculations are carried out for bulk Reynolds number of 25,000 to calculate flow and temperature field. Three different wall temperature boundary conditions of 950 oC, 1000 oC and 1050 oC are considered. Particle sizes in the range 5-25 microns are considered, with a mean particle diameter of 6 microns. Calculated impingement and deposition patterns are discussed for different exposed surfaces in the two pass geometry. It is evident from this study that at high temperatures, heavy deposition occurs in the bend region and in the region immediately downstream of the bend. The models and tools developed in this study have a wide range of applicability in assessing erosion and deposition in gas turbine components. / Ph. D.

Current climate models often predict fractional cloud cover on the basis of a diagnostic probability density function (PDF) describing the subgrid-scale variability of the total water specific humidity, qt, favouring schemes with limited complexity. Standard shapes are uniform or triangular PDFs the width of which is assumed to scale with the gridbox mean qt or the grid-box mean saturation specific humidity, qs. In this study, the qt variability is analysed from large-eddy simulations for two stratocumulus, two shallow cumulus, and one deep convective cases. We find that in most cases, triangles are a better approximation to the simulated PDFs than uniform distributions. In two of the 24 slices examined, the actual distributions were so strongly skewed that the simple symmetric shapes could not capture the PDF at all. The distribution width for either shape scales acceptably well with both the mean value of qt and qs, the former being a slightly better choice. The qt variance is underestimated by the fitted PDFs, but overestimated by the existing parameterisations. While the cloud fraction is in general relatively well diagnosed from fitted or parameterised uniform or triangular PDFs, it fails to capture cases with small partial cloudiness, and in 10 – 30% of the cases misdiagnoses clouds in clear skies or vice-versa. The results suggest choosing a parameterisation with a triangular shape, where the distribution width would scale with the grid-box mean qt using a scaling factor of 0.076. This, however, is subject to the caveat that the reference simulations examined here were partly for rather small domains and driven by idealised boundary conditions.

Le contexte général de cette thèse s'inscrit dans le cadre de la modélisation eulérienne instationnaire des écoulements turbulents anisothermes gaz - particules. La modélisation de ces écoulements est cruciale pour de nombreuses applications industrielles et pour la prédiction de certains phénomènes naturels. Par exemple, la combustion diphasique dans les moteurs automobiles et aéronautiques est précédée par l'injection et la dispersion de carburant liquide dans la chambre de combustion. Les phénomènes mis en jeu exigent alors une prédiction locale tenant compte du caractère instationnaire de l'écoulement turbulent et de la présence de géométries complexes. De plus, de nombreuses études expérimentales et numériques récentes ont mis en évidence le rôle prépondérant de l'inertie des particules sur les mécanismes de dispersion et de concentration préférentielle en écoulement turbulent. Ceci rend donc indispensable la prise en compte de ces mécanismes dans la modélisation diphasique. Au cours de ce travail de thèse, une approche eulérienne locale et instantanée a été développée pour prédire les écoulements gaz-particules anisothermes et turbulents. Elle est basée sur l'approche statistique du Formalisme Eulérien Mésoscopique (MEF) introduite par Février et al. (JFM, 2005). Cette approche a été ici étendue aux variables thermiques pour la prise en compte du caractère anisotherme de l'écoulement. Cette approche a été ensuite utilisée dans le cadre de la méthode des moments (Kaufmann et al., JCP, 2008), et un système d'équations locales et instantanées pour la phase dispersée a été proposé. La modélisation au premier ordre exige la fermeture des moments de second ordre apparaissant dans les équations de la quantité de mouvement et de l'énergie. La proposition de telles relations constitutives fait l'objet d'une partie de la thèse. Afin de fournir une méthode capable de prédire le comportement local, instantané et anisotherme de la phase dispersée dans des configurations `a une échelle réaliste, les équations pour la phase dispersée ont été filtrées et une modélisation aux grandes échelles (LES) est effectuée. Cette modélisation étends, par la prise en compte des variables thermiques, le travail de Moreau et al. (FtaC, 2010) sur l'approche LES Euler-Euler en conditions isothermes. L'approche complète est enfin appliquée aux résultats de simulation numérique d'un jet plan turbulent gazeux froid, chargé en particules, dans une turbulence homogène isotrope chaude monophasique. / The aim of this thesis is to provide an Eulerian modeling for the dispersed phase interacting with unsteady non-isothermal turbulent flows. The modeling of these flows is crucial for several industrial applications and for predictions of natural events. Examples are the combustion chambers of areo engines where the combustion is preceded by the injection and dispersion of liquid fuel. The prediction of such phenomena involves a local modeling of the mixture for taking into account the unsteady behavior of the turbulent flow and the presence of complex geometries. Moreover, many experimental and numerical studies have recently highlighted the significant role of the particle inertia on the mechanisms of dispersion and preferential concentration. Accounting for such mechanisms is therefore essential for modeling the particle-laden turbulent flows. In this thesis, a local and instantaneous Eulerian approach able to describe and to predict the local behavior of inertial particles interacting with non-isothermal turbulent flows has been developed. It is based on the statistical approach known as Mesoscopic Eulerian formalism (MEF) introduced by Février et al. (JFM, 2005). The statistical approach has been extended to the thermal quantities in order to account for the non-isothermal conditions into the modeling. This formalism is then used in the framework of the moment approach (Kaufmann et al., JCP, 2008) and a system of local and instantaneous equations for the non-isothermal dispersed phase has been suggested. The first order modeling requires to close second-order moments appearing in momentum and energy equations. The proposal of such constitutive relations makes the object of a part of this study. In order to provide an Eulerian approach usable in real configurations at industrial scale, the equations of the dispersed phase are filtered and the approach developed in the framework of the Large-Eddy Simulations. From the work of Moreau et al. (FTaC, 2010), the Eulerian-Eulerian LES approach is then extended to non-isothermal conditions. The whole modeling is then a priori tested against numerical simulations of a cold planar turbulent particle-laden jet crossing a homogeneous isotropic decaying hot turbulence.

Hot wire anemometers have been used in several wind velocity sensors deployed in Mars. They are based in keeping the temperature of a surface at a constant value, above the ambient. This is done by means of a heater controlled with an electronic system. The cooling rate of each point at the sensor surface can be used to calculate the wind velocity and direction. However, due to turbulent fluctuations, the cooling rate is not constant even in the case of constant velocity. Moreover, RANS simulations cannot estimate such fluctuations as they only provide an estimation of the averaged flow field. The goal of this work has been to estimate such fluctuations and the e↵ect they might have on the sensor readings. To do so, the turbulent cooling rate (Nusselt number) of a sensor with a generic shape, under the typical conditions to be find in Mars, has been simulated using high performance LES (Large Eddy Simulation) simulations and compared with RANS and URANS simulations.

Les réseaux de tuyauterie industriels sont le siège de niveaux importants de vibrations induites par l’écoulement qui peuvent mener à la rupture par fatigue des installations. La présente étude se concentre sur l’analyse et modélisation simplifiée de la source vibratoire associée au passage d’un écoulement liquide turbulent par un coude à 90°. Une approche combinant expériences et simulation a été conduite. Une boucle de circulation d’eau munie d’un coude transparent a été conçue afin de permettre des me-sures de vitesse à l’intérieur du coude. Pour cette finalité, les techniques de Vélocimétrie par Imagerie de Particules (PIV) plane et stéréoscopique ont été utilisées. La pression pariétale et les vibrations du banc d’essais ont été mesurées simultanément. Plusieurs configurations d’écoulement ont été testées afin d’obtenir une riche base de données couplées reliant l’écoulement fluide à l’excitation dynamique des parois et, finalement, à la réponse vibratoire de la structure. En parallèle, l’écoulement instationnaire d’eau dans le coude a été simulé au moyen d’une approche du type Simulation des Grandes Echelles (LES). La simulation fluide a permis d’étudier en détails la topologie de l’écoulement turbulent au passage du coude ainsi que le champ instationnaire de pression fluctuante induit sur la paroi. Finale-ment, un ensemble d’outils statistiques a été appliqué aux données expérimentales et numériques afin de proposer un modèle simplifié des transferts qui relient l’écoulement turbulent à la sollicitation dynamique de la structure contenant le coude. / The flow of dense fluids within thin-walled piping systems may lead to significant levels of Flow-Induced Vibration, mainly in the vicinities of singularities such as obstacles inserted into the flow, sudden changes of cross-sectional area or flow direction. This study focuses on the analysis and reduced-order modelling of the vibrational source associated with the turbulent flow of liquids through a 90° elbow.A mixed experimental-computational approach is undertaken. A closed water loop containing a transparent elbow was designed in order to allow for fluid velocity measurements inside the singularity. To this purpose, planar and stereoscopic Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) were employed. Wall pressure fluctuations and structural vibrations were measured simultaneously. Several flow configurations were tested in order to obtain a large coupled database linking the flow to the dynamic excitation, and then to the vibration response of the structure.In parallel, the unsteady water flow through the elbow was computed using Large-Eddy Simulation (LES). The fluid simulation allowed for a detailed study of the turbulent flow through the singularity and the unsteady pressure field induced on the piping walls. Finally, a set of statistical tools was applied to both experimental and computational data in order to propose a reduced-order model of the transfer function that links the tur-bulent flow to the dynamic excitation of the elbowed piping structure.

Interactions between flames and thermal phenomena are the guiding thread of this work. Flamesproduce heat indeed, but can also be affected by it. Large Eddy Simulations (LES) are used hereto investigate these interactions, with a focus on two main topics: wall heat transfer andcombustion control. In a first part, wall heat transfer in a rocket engine sub-scale CH4/O2 burner isstudied. In the context of launchers re-usability and cost reduction, which are major challenges,new propellant combinations are considered and wall heat fluxes have to be precisely predicted.The aim of this work is to evaluate LES needs and performances to simulate this kind ofconfiguration and provide a computational methodology permitting to simulate variousconfigurations. Numerical results are compared to experimental data provided by the TechnischeUniversität München (Germany). In a second part, combustion control by means of NanosecondRepetitively Pulsed (NRP) plasma discharges is studied. Modern gas turbine systems use indeedlean combustion with the aim of reducing fuel consumption and pollutant emissions. Lean flamesare however known to be prone to instabilities and combustion control can play a major role in thisdomain. A phenomenological model which considers the plasma discharges as a heat source isdeveloped and applied to a swirl-stabilized CH4/Air premixed lean burner. LES are performed inorder to evaluate the effects of the NRP discharges on the flame. Numerical results are comparedwith experimental observations made at the King Abdulla University of Science and Technology(Saudi Arabia).