O tucumã-do-Amazonas (Astrocaryum aculeatum), da família Arecaceae, é uma espécie com ocorrência na Amazônia Ocidental e Central brasileira. Seu fruto é muito apreciado na região amazônica que consome a polpa na forma fresca. Sua produção é feita pelos agricultores extrativistas. Não existem informações dos parâmetros de diversidade e estrutura genética das populações naturais desta espécie, fundamental para o estabelecimento de estratégias adequadas no uso deste recurso genético, e para aumentar a eficiência da domesticação e seleção para um programa de melhoramento genético. Não é conhecido também como este extrativismo pode estar influenciando a diversidade entre estas populações ao nível dos genitores e progênies, o fluxo gênico e a estrutura genética espacial. Assim, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi caracterizar a estrutura e a diversidade genética de populações de A. aculeatum no Estado do Amazonas, utilizando marcadores microssatélites. Como objetivos específicos o estudo visou desenvolver iniciadores de microssatélites para A. aculeatum; avaliar a diversidade e a estrutura genética; determinar o fluxo gênico, bem como o grau de parentesco, a estrutura genética espacial (EGE) e o coeficiente de coancestria numa população. Os iniciadores de microssatélites foram isolados a partir de uma biblioteca genômica enriquecida e caracterizados usando 40 amostras provenientes de duas populações selvagens. Foram identificados 14 iniciadores de microssatélites, mostrando um alto polimorfismo nas populações avaliadas. Para estimar a diversidade e estrutura genética foram utilizadas amostras de material vegetal de 218 plantas distribuídas em 15 populações, localizadas em 14 municípios do estado de Amazonas. Foram identificados 101 alelos nos iniciadores, com média de 10,1 alelos. As médias das heterozigosidades observadas (HO) foram superiores às esperadas (HE) ao nível de população (HO=0,639, HE=0,557) e locos (HO=0,639; HE=0,594). Os baixos valores de FST (0,07) mostraram uma moderada estrutura populacional e a análise Bayesiana indicou um agrupamento mais adequado de k=4, o que foi confirmado pelas análises de PCoA. Para realizar o fluxo gênico, EGE e coeficiente de coancestria foram utilizadas 244 amostras de material vegetal, distribuídas entre 112 possíveis genitores, 12 matrizes e 120 progênies numa população. Foi detectada EGE significativa para os adultos até a distância de 50 m, indicando dispersão de sementes a curtas distâncias. A análise de paternidade detectou 9,2% de imigração de pólen. Não foram detectadas autofecundações e a distância média de polinização dentro da população foi de 81 m. Os índices de diversidade genética confirmaram a estratégia reprodutiva por alogamia da espécie, com níveis elevados de heterozigotos nas populações, e a estrutura genética sugere que a espécie teria iniciado o processo de formação das subpopulações há pouco tempo, tendo sido influenciada antes e após o início do desmatamento. O fluxo gênico detectado indica que a entrada de alelos na população através da imigração de pólen está contribuindo para manutenção da diversidade genética da população. Com relação à conservação da espécie, esta deve ser realizada ao nível das bacias hidrográficas, direcionando políticas de manejo para as bacias hidrográficas da Amazônia. Entretanto, dentro da população é importante a renovação com novas progênies selecionadas a partir de um espaçamento mínimo de 50 m entre plantas matrizes para diminuir as probabilidades de coletar sementes de plantas parentes. / The tucum palm (Astrocaryum aculeatum), family Arecaceae, is a species occurring in Western and Central Brazilian Amazon. Its fruit is widely appreciated in the Amazon region that consumes the pulp in fresh form. Its production is made by extractive farmers. There is no information on the genetic diversity and structure of natural populations of this species, fundamental to establishing adequate strategies in the use of this genetic resource, increase the efficiency of domestication and selection for a breeding program. It is also unknown the way this extrativism may be influencing to diversity of these populations at the level of the parents and offspring, as well as gene flow and spatial genetic structure. Therefore, the objective of this research was to characterize the structure and genetic diversity of populations of A. aculeatum in Amazonas State, using microsatellite markers. As specific objectives, the study aimed to develop microsatellite primers for A. aculeatum; evaluate the genetic diversity and structure; determine the gene flow, the degree of relationship or kinship, the spatial genetic structure (SGS) and the coefficient of coancestry in one population. The loci were isolated from a microsatellite-enriched genomic library and were characterized using 40 samples coming from two wild populations. Fourteen microsatellite primers were identified, showing a high polymorphism in the populations evaluated. To estimate the genetic diversity and structure we used samples of plant material from 218 plants distributed in 15 populations located in 14 municipalities of the state of Amazonas. A total of 101 alleles were identified in the primers, with an average of 10.1 alleles. The averages of the observed heterozygosities (HO) were higher than the expected heterozygosities (HE) at the population (HO=0.639; HE=0.557) and loci (HO=0.639; HE=0.594) levels. The low values of FST (0.07) showed a moderate population structure and the Bayesian analysis indicated as the most suitable a cluster of k=4, confirmed by the groups formed in the PCoA. To conduct gene flow, SGS and the coefficient of coancestry, 244 samples of plant material were used, distributed among 112 possible progenitors, 12 matrices and 120 progenies in a population. A significant SGS was detected for adult trees up to the distance of 50 m, indicating seed dispersal over short distances. Paternity analysis indicated 9.2% of pollen immigration. Selfing was not detected and the average distance of pollination within the population was 81 m. The genetic diversity indices confirmed the outcrossing reproductive strategy of the species with high levels of heterozygotes in the populations, and the genetic structure suggests that the species would have started the process of formation of subpopulations a short time ago, being influenced before and after the start of deforestation. The gene flow detected indicates that the entry of alleles in the population through pollen immigration is contributing to the maintenance of genetic diversity of the population. With respect to the conservation of the species, it should be performed at the level of the river basins, directing management policies for the river basins of the Amazon. However, within the population it is important to renew with new progenies selected from a minimum spacing of 50 m between plant matrices to decrease the probability of collecting seeds from plant relatives.

Cette thèse porte sur le décryptage des causes des variations des taux de substitution moléculaires entre lignées. D'un point de vue théorique, différentes hypothèses sont souvent basées sur des distributions des valeurs sélectives des mutations assez simplistes. En utilisant le modèle géométrique de Fisher, nous avons pu dériver des expressions pour cette distribution, et mettre en évidence l'importance de la complexité phénotypique et de la pléiotropie des mutations. Les variations entre espèces de la proportion de changements d'amino-acides qui sont adaptatifs sont souvent interprétées comme une conséquence de différences de taille de population. Par des simulations, nous avons démontré que la taille efficace des populations n'a qu'une influence faible sur la variation de ces taux, et que les changements environnementaux et la complexité phénotypique peuvent avoir un effet plus important. En ce qui concerne les taux de substitution synonymes, une relation inverse avec la masse corporelle est souvent décrite chez les vertébrés endothermes. Pour déterminer si cette relation est aussi valable chez les vertébrés ectothermes, nous avons suivi une approche comparative portant sur les tortues. Nous avons estimé les taux de substitution synonymes chez 224 espèces, que nous avons ensuite comparé à la masse corporelle (et autres traits d'histoire de vie) et à une variable environnementale (la latitude). Nos résultats démontrent que les taux d'évolution moléculaires sont fortement corrélés aux conditions environnementales et non pas à des traits d'histoire de vie. / The main objective of the present thesis is to elucidate the causes of variations in rates of molecular evolution among lineages, and in particular, to understand how factors connected to mutation, selection and genetic drift can influence these variations.

The Tatra chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica), an endemic mountain ungulate, occurs in the High Tatra Mts. (northern Slovakia and southern Poland). In the second part of the 20th century several chamois introductions occurred in Slovakia: Tatra chamois (from the High Tatra Mts.) were introduced into the Low Tatra Mts., while Alpine chamois (R. r. rupicapra) into the Veľká Fatra and Slovenský raj Mts. The High Tatra Mts. population underwent several population declines (bottlenecks) and all other Slovak populations were founded from only a few individuals (founder effect). Moreover, because the Low Tatra, Veľká Fatra and Slovenský raj are neighbouring mountain ranges, there is a potential risk of migration and hybridisation between the subspecies. Using 18 microsatellite loci, we studied neutral genetic variability, structure and potential hybridisation in chamois populations in Slovakia. The study is based on 193 samples: 95 tissue and 5 blood samples, and 88 faecal and 5 hair samples. Low genetic variability was found in all populations, the lowest one in High Tatra Mts. population. High values of fixation index, the number of private alleles, and factorial correspondence analysis indicated strong differentiation between the studied populations. Bayesian clustering divided Slovak chamois...

This thesis investigates the molecular evolutionary and macroevolutionary consequences of flight loss in insects. Chapter 2 tests the hypothesis that flightless groups have smaller effective population sizes than related flighted groups, expected to result in a consistent pattern of increased non-synonymous to synonymous ratios in flightless lineages due to the greater effect of genetic drift in smaller populations. Chapter 3 tests the hypothesis that reduced dispersal and species-level traits such as range size associated with flightlessness increase extinction rates, which over the long term will counteract increased speciation rates in flightless lineages, leading to lower net diversification. The wide-spread loss of flight in insects has led to increased molecular evolutionary rates and is associated with decreased long-term net diversification. I demonstrate that the fundamental trait of dispersal ability has shaped two forms of diversity—molecular and species—in the largest group of animals, and that microevolutionary and macroevolutionary patterns do not necessarily mirror each other. / Generously funded by NSERC with a Canada Graduate Scholarship and the Government of Ontario with an Ontario Graduate Scholarship to T. Fatima Mitterboeck; NSERC with a Discovery Grant to Dr. Sarah J. Adamowicz

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