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Thesis advisor: Michael J. Naughton / The nanoscale morphology of metals can enable special functionality in plasmonic and electrochemical devices, with applications in energy conversion and storage, sensors, and computers. In particular, sharp edges on metal nano and microstructures are understood to affect the density of electrons on the metal surface. The associated concentration of electric field can concentrate surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) and enable waveguiding of the SPPs, as we show in this thesis for sharp ridges along aluminum nanowires. Also important is the presence of facets on the metal structures, which determines the orbitals that electrons occupy on the metal surface. Changes in both the electron density and orbitals can affect the binding of molecules to the metal, which can improve reaction kinetics in catalysis. We demonstrate this on gold dendrite and plate electrocatalysts for CO2 electrolysis. Regarding metal nanostructure fabrication, electrochemical deposition and corrosion have demonstrated promising control over the morphology, including the topography, crystallinity, grain boundaries, and crystal faceting. This is important, because existing methods for metal nanostructure fabrication can only produce a circumscribed assortment of morphologies. In contrast, semiconductors and insulators have many new deposition techniques that produce a wide range of controlled morphologies. Of further appeal, electrochemical techniques are solution-based and typically operate at room temperature and pressure, allowing facile scale-up to industrial production. Here we demonstrate and discuss the mechanisms of two new techniques, which produce the aluminum nanowires and gold dendrites and plates discussed above. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2018. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Physics.

Growth mechanism of electroplated copper columns has been systematically studied by simulations and characterizations. A two-dimensional cross-sectional kinetic Monte Carlo (2DCS-KMC) model has been developed to simulate the electrodeposition of single crystal copper. The evolution of the microstructure has been visualized. The cluster density, average cluster size, variance of the cluster size and average aspect ratio were obtained from the simulations. The growth history of the deposition from the first atom to an equivalent of 100 monolayers was reconstructed. Following the single-lattice 2DCS-KMC model for a single crystal, a two-dimensional cross-sectional poly-lattice kinetic Monte Carlo (2DCSP-KMC) model has been developed for simulation of the electrodeposition of polycrystalline copper on both a copper and a gold substrate. With this model, the early-stage nucleation and the grain growth after impingement of nuclei can be simulated; as such the entire growth history is reconstructed in terms of the evolution of microstructure, grain statistics and grain boundary misorientation. The model is capable of capturing some key aspects of nucleation and growth mechanisms including the nucleation type (e.g. homogeneous or heterogeneous), texture development, the growth of grains and higher energetic state of grain boundaries. The model has also proven capable of capturing the effects of deposition parameters including applied electrode potential, concentration of cupric ions and temperature. Their effects are largely dependent on the substrates. The early-stage electrocrystallization of Cu on polycrystalline Au has been studied by ex-situ AFM observations. The evolution of surface morphology of the electrodeposited copper on a sputtered Au seed layer from 16ms to 1000s was observed and their formation mechanism discussed. The heterogeneous nucleation phenomenon, the competitive growth both longitudinally and laterally, and the dominant growth of some nuclei were experimentally observed, which are also visualized by the relevant KMC simulation results at a smaller size scale and a shorter time scale. A heuristic model is therefore proposed to describe the mechanism of the early-stage electrocrystallization of Cu on a polycrystalline Au seed layer. Electroplated copper columns plated for different times have been characterized in terms of the evolution of their external morphology, cross-sectional microstructure and crystal structure. The microstructure of electroplated copper columns is characteristic of bi-modal or tri-modal grain size distribution. The results indicate that recrystallization has occurred during or after the plating, top-down and laterally. Slight changes of the crystal structure were observed by in-situ XRD and it was found that the changes of the (111) and (200) planes occurred at different stages of self-annealing. Finally, the results indicate the presence of organic additives is not essential for self-annealing of a copper column to occur.

Bipolar electrochemistry deals with the exposure of an isolated conducting substrate that has no direct connection with a power supply except via an electric field. Therefore it can be considered as a "wireless technique". The polarization of the substrate with respect to the surrounding medium generates a potential difference between its opposite ends which can support localized electrochemical oxidation reduction reactions and break the surface symmetry of the substrate. The method was applied in the present thesis to materials science and biological systems. In the frame of designing asymmetric particles, also called "Janus" particles, bipolar electrochemistry was adapted for the bulk preparation of these objects. Conductive substrates with different nature, sizes and shapes have been modified with various materials such as metals, ionic and inorganic compounds using this approach. Moreover, a control over the deposit topology could be achieved for substrates at different length scales. Bipolar electrodeposition is also a good tool for investigating the generation of different metal morphologies. Further developments in the bipolar setup allowed us to use the technology for microstructuration of conductive objects. Furthermore the concept has shown to be very useful in the field of the induced motion of particles. The asymmetric objects that have been prepared by bipolar electrodeposition were employed as microswimmers which could show both translational and rotational motion. The application of electric fields in the bipolar setup can be used for the direct generation of motion of isotropic objects through bubble generation. A levitation motion of objects combined with light emission was possible using this concept. Finally, bipolar electrochemistry was also used for studying the intrinsic conductivity of biological molecules (DNA), which is of great importance in the nanotechnology.

L’électrochimie bipolaire est possible quand un substrat conducteur qui n’est pas directement connecté à un générateur est exposé à un champ électrique. Il s’agit donc d’une technique « sans fil ». La polarisation du substrat par rapport à la solution génère une différence de potentiel entre les extrémités du substrat qui peuvent devenir le siège de réactions rédox et briser ainsi la symétrie à la surface du substrat. Dans cette thèse, cette méthode a été appliquée à l’élaboration de matériaux ainsi qu’à l’étude de systèmes biologiques. L’électrochimie bipolaire a été adaptée pour la préparation « bulk » de particules asymétriques également appelées particules « Janus ».Des substrats conducteurs de différentes natures, tailles et formes ont été modifiées avec des dépôts métalliques, ioniques ou inorganiques. De plus, un contrôle de la morphologie du dépôt a été possible sur des substrats d’échelle variée. L’électrodéposition bipolaire permet d’étudier la génération de différentes morphologies métalliques, ainsi que la micro-structuration sur des objets conducteurs grâce au développement de nouveaux setups expérimentaux. Le concept s’est également montré très utile dans le domaine de la mise en mouvement de particules. D’une part, les objets asymétriques qui ont été préparés par électrodéposition bipolaire peuvent agir comme des micro-nageurs capables de mouvement de translation ou de rotation. D’autre part, l’application d’un champ électrique peut directement induire le déplacement d’objets isotropes par génération localisée de bulles. Un mouvement de lévitation combinée à l’émission de lumière est également possible. Finalement, l’électrochimie bipolaire a été utilisée pour étudier la conductivité de biomolécules (ADN), ce qui est d’une grande importance dans le domaine de la nanotechnologie. / Bipolar electrochemistry deals with the exposure of an isolated conducting substrate that has no direct connection with a power supply except via an electric field. Therefore it can be considered as a “wireless technique”. The polarization of the substrate with respect to the surrounding medium generates a potential difference between its opposite ends which can support localized electrochemical oxidation reduction reactions and break the surface symmetry of the substrate. The method was applied in the present thesis to materials science and biological systems. In the frame of designing asymmetric particles, also called “Janus” particles, bipolar electrochemistry was adapted for the bulk preparation of these objects. Conductive substrates with different nature, sizes and shapes have been modified with various materials such as metals, ionic and inorganic compounds using this approach. Moreover, a control over the deposit topology could be achieved for substrates at different length scales. Bipolar electrodeposition is also a good tool for investigating the generation of different metal morphologies. Further developments in the bipolar setup allowed us to use the technology for microstructuration of conductive objects. Furthermore the concept has shown to be very useful in the field of the induced motion of particles. The asymmetric objects that have been prepared by bipolar electrodeposition were employed as microswimmers which could show both translational and rotational motion. The application of electric fields in the bipolar setup can be used for the direct generation of motion of isotropic objects through bubble generation. A levitation motion of objects combined with light emission was possible using this concept. Finally, bipolar electrochemistry was also used for studying the intrinsic conductivity of biological molecules (DNA), which is of great importance in the nanotechnology.

This thesis deals with the synthesis of electroactiveorganic compounds. The synthesis of ethylenedioxy-benzodioxinstri-dioxin and tetra-dioxin are described. These molecules wereprepared with the aim of creating donor molecules for cationicradical salts. The symmetric analogs of tri-dioxin,methylenedioxy-derivative and ethylenedioxy-naphthalene werealso synthesized. Three different cation radical salts with 2:1stoichiometries were obtained from tri-dioxin, whiletetra-dioxin merely provided polycrystalline materials.Tri-dioxin and tetra-dioxin were also successful as operationalmatrixes in PALDI-TOF. Tetrathiafulvalenes with the2-dialkyl-amino-1,3-dithiolium-4-thiolate mesoion asbuilding-block was also synthesized. A series of doublyalkylthiol-substituted TTFs were prepared with the aim offorming self-assembly monolayers on gold surfaces in theapplication of organic thin film field-effect transistors.Film-formation for two TTFs were studied and they providedrelatively dense packed monolayers with a discrete distance ofthe TTF moiety from the gold surface. The mesoionic compound was also for the first time used inanumpolungreaction. The electrophile obtained in situ bytreatment of mesoion with sulfuryl chloride was reacted with avariety of electron-rich aromatic compounds. From the receivedproducts three new arylthio-substituted TTFs weresynthesized. <b>Keywords:</b>Synthesis, Benzodioxin, Tetrathiafulvalene,Mesoion, Organic Conductor, Cation Radical Salt, CyclicVoltammetry, Electrocrystallization, Self-Assembly Monolayer,SAM, Organic Field-Effect Transistor, OFET

<p>This thesis deals with the synthesis of electroactiveorganic compounds. The synthesis of ethylenedioxy-benzodioxinstri-dioxin and tetra-dioxin are described. These molecules wereprepared with the aim of creating donor molecules for cationicradical salts. The symmetric analogs of tri-dioxin,methylenedioxy-derivative and ethylenedioxy-naphthalene werealso synthesized. Three different cation radical salts with 2:1stoichiometries were obtained from tri-dioxin, whiletetra-dioxin merely provided polycrystalline materials.Tri-dioxin and tetra-dioxin were also successful as operationalmatrixes in PALDI-TOF.</p><p>Tetrathiafulvalenes with the2-dialkyl-amino-1,3-dithiolium-4-thiolate mesoion asbuilding-block was also synthesized. A series of doublyalkylthiol-substituted TTFs were prepared with the aim offorming self-assembly monolayers on gold surfaces in theapplication of organic thin film field-effect transistors.Film-formation for two TTFs were studied and they providedrelatively dense packed monolayers with a discrete distance ofthe TTF moiety from the gold surface.</p><p>The mesoionic compound was also for the first time used inan<i>umpolung</i>reaction. The electrophile obtained in situ bytreatment of mesoion with sulfuryl chloride was reacted with avariety of electron-rich aromatic compounds. From the receivedproducts three new arylthio-substituted TTFs weresynthesized.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>Synthesis, Benzodioxin, Tetrathiafulvalene,Mesoion, Organic Conductor, Cation Radical Salt, CyclicVoltammetry, Electrocrystallization, Self-Assembly Monolayer,SAM, Organic Field-Effect Transistor, OFET</p>

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T20:36:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 3249.pdf: 11024185 bytes, checksum: 80826ca263ef595b53e77d333e4a12a8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-05-27 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / This study evaluated the electrodeposition processes of Sn, Zn and Sn-Zn alloy in the absence and presence of tartaric acid as complexing agent. Initially all the systems studied were evaluated by Cyclic Voltammetry to determine the deposition potentials of the pure metals and alloy. The results showed that the presence of the complexant shifts the deposition process of both Sn and Zn to more negative potential values. The metals codeposition can be determined by the variation in the shape and potentials of the peaks of deposition in the voltammograms obtained for the alloy when compared to those for individual metals. The potential-step technique (Chronoamperometry) was used to characterize the initial stages of electrocrystallization. It was found that the nucleation processes of Sn (in the absence and presence of the complexant) and Sn-Zn alloy (in complexed medium) are governed by progressive nucleation, while for Zn in both media and for the Sn-Zn alloy in non-complexed medium were ill-defined. Thus, these can be characterized as mixed processes. Films obtained at different deposition potentials were characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX). It was observed that using the tartaric acid it was possible to obtain more uniform and homogeneous deposits and, apparently, favouring the reduction process and achieving a more protective coating. The morphology, composition and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) of films galvanostatically deposited varying the complexing agent (potassium sodium tartrate or sodium gluconate) and the deposition current (5,0 mA cm-2 and 30,0 mA cm-2) were also analyzed. It was found that at a lower current density the films obtained showed a better uniformity, while those obtained at a higher current density showed a finer grain structure due to an increased nucleation rate in this last instance. Moreover, we can say that the tartrate favours the deposition of Zn when compared to the gluconate. By the XRD analysis it was possible to observe that the alloys consist of separated phases of Sn and Zn crystals and they do not form any intermetallic compound. / Neste trabalho foram avaliados os processos de eletrodeposição do Sn, do Zn e da liga de Sn-Zn na ausência e na presença de ácido tartárico como agente complexante. Inicialmente todos os sistemas foram avaliados por Voltametria Cíclica para determinação dos potenciais de deposição dos metais puros e da liga. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que a presença do complexante desloca o processo de deposição, tanto do Sn como do Zn, para potenciais mais negativos. A codeposição dos metais pode ser verificada pela variação nas formas e potenciais dos picos de deposição obtidos nos voltamogramas da liga quando comparados com os dos metais individuais. A técnica de saltos potenciostáticos (Cronoamperometria) foi utilizada para caracterizar os estágios iniciais de eletrocristalização. Foi constatado que os processos de nucleação do Sn (na ausência e na presença do complexante) e da liga de Sn-Zn, em meio complexado, são governados por nucleação progressiva, enquanto para o Zn em ambos os meios e para a liga de Sn-Zn, em meio não complexado, não foram bem definidos, podendo ser caracterizados como processos mistos. Filmes obtidos em diferentes potenciais de deposição foram caracterizados por voltametria de dissolução anódica, Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV), Espectroscopia por Energia Dispersiva de Raios-X (EDX). Foi observado que com a utilização do ácido tartárico era possível obter depósitos mais uniformes e homogêneos e, aparentemente, houve favorecimento do processo de redução e obtenção de um revestimento mais protetor. Também foram realizadas análises de morfologia, composição e Difração de Raios-X (DRX) de ligas de Sn-Zn eletrodepositadas galvanostaticamente variando o complexante (tartarato duplo de potássio e sódio ou gluconato de sódio) e a corrente de deposição (5,0 mA cm-2 e 30,0 mA cm-2). Verificou-se que, com a utilização de uma densidade de corrente menor, os filmes obtidos apresentaram maior uniformidade, enquanto os obtidos com uma densidade de corrente maior apresentaram cristais menores devido a uma maior velocidade de nucleação neste último caso. Além disso, pode-se dizer que o tartarato favoreceu a deposição de Zn em relação ao gluconato. Com a análise por DRX foi possível observar que as ligas são constituídas de fase separadas de cristais de Sn e de Zn, não formando qualquer composto intermetálico.

Le but de cette thèse est l’étude du système électrochimique or-cuivre en milieucyanure, la finalité étant la réalisation de microballons en or-cuivre de 800 μm de diamètre etd’épaisseur 20 à 40 μm. La composition, la microstructure ainsi que la rugosité doivent êtreparfaitement maîtrisées. La technique utilisée pour réaliser ce type d’objet est le dépôtélectrolytique en milieu cyanure.Dans un premier temps, l’influence des principaux paramètres d’élaboration(température de l’électrolyte, agitation, etc.) a été étudiée. Cette première étude a permis deréaliser des alliages d’or-cuivre de 5 μm d’épaisseur sur substrat plan de différentescompositions. En effet, il a été montré que la teneur en cuivre des dépôts augmente lorsque lepotentiel de réduction appliqué croît. Une augmentation du taux de cuivre modifie lesmécanismes de germination et de croissance des dépôts, ce qui a pour effet de diminuer lataille de grains et de modifier la microstructure. Ainsi, plus le dépôt est riche en cuivre, plus lataille de grains est faible et plus la structure est colonnaire, nodulaire voire dendritique.Des dépôts de 20 μm d’épaisseur ont ensuite été effectués sur substrat plan.Conformément à ce qui est décrit dans la littérature, ces dépôts se sont avérés très difficiles àréaliser en raison de l’apparition de nodules et de dendrites lorsque l’épaisseur augmente. Deplus, pour des épaisseurs supérieures à 10 μm, les dépôts sont alors constitués uniquementd’or, le cuivre n’étant plus réduit. Le changement de structure en cours de dépôt s’expliquepar l’inhibition de croissance engendrée par le cyanure libre. En effet, au cours de la réductionde l’aurocyanure et du cuprocyanure, du cyanure libre est libéré à la cathode. Ce cyanure libreinhibe la croissance latérale et promeut la croissance tridimensionnelle dite « instantanée »,provoquant l’apparition de nodules et de dendrites. Quant à l’appauvrissement en cuivre dudépôt, il s’explique également par la présence de cyanure libre à la cathode qui génère descomplexes cuprocyanure d’ordre 4. Les complexes d’ordre 4 possèdent une énergied’activation supérieure et un coefficient de diffusion plus élevé que les complexes d’ordre 3,d’où l’appauvrissement en cuivre du dépôt.Suite aux études électrochimiques, un modèle a été établi permettant d’expliquerl’influence du cyanure libre sur l’électrocristallisation des alliages d’or-cuivre. Ce modèle apermis de mettre en place des solutions visant à limiter l’inhibition électrochimique et ainsioptimiser les propriétés des alliages or-cuivre obtenus.L’une des solutions mises en place est l’application d’un champ ultrasonore pendant ledépôt. La cavitation générée par les ultrasons permet en effet d’évacuer le cyanure libre de lasurface de la cathode et d’optimiser le processus d’électrocristallisation. Ainsi, des dépôtsd’or-cuivre sur microballons ont été réalisés en présence d’ultrasons. Les analyses MEB etEDX de ces microballons montrent qu’il est possible d’obtenir des dépôts de 20 à 40 μmd’épaisseur de composition maitrisée. Les dépôts analysés ne présentent aucun gradient deconcentration dans l’épaisseur et il est ainsi possible de réaliser des alliages d’or-cuivrecontenant jusqu’à 45 %m de cuivre. Les dépôts réalisés présentent une structure lisse(80 ≤ Ra ≤ 230 nm) et compacte, et cela quelle que soit la concentration en cuivre. Quant à lamicrodureté de ces dépôts sur microballons, elle est fonction de la taille de grains (relation deHall-Petch) et donc de la concentration en cuivre du dépôt. / The aim of this PhD Thesis is to study the gold-copper cyanide electrochemicalsystem and finally to realize gold-copper microspheres with a diameter of 800 μm and athickness between 20 and 40 μm. The composition, the microstructure and the roughness ofthese shells must be perfectly controlled. To synthesise such a material, electrodepositionfrom a gold-copper alkaline cyanide bath has been chosen.Initially, the influence of the principal electrochemical parameters (temperature of theplating bath, stirring, etc.) was studied. This study showed that it is possible to realize5 μm thick gold-copper alloys with various compositions. Actually, it was shown that thecopper content of deposits varies with the applied potential. When increasing the coppercontent of coatings, the nucleation and growth mechanisms change. As a result, the grain sizeand the microhardness of the coatings are modified. An increase in the copper content reducesthe grain size witch increases the microhardness until a critical grain size of 6 nm. Thisincrease of copper content also affects the microstructure: columnar, nodular even dendriticalstructures were observed.Then, 20 μm thick gold-copper coatings were realized using the same electrochemicalparameters. As expected, these coatings were very difficult to plate because of the instabilityof the electrocrystallization process resulting in the development of columnar and nodularstructures. Moreover, for thicknesses above 10 μm, all deposits are free from copper. Themicrostructure change of deposits can be explained by inhibition phenomena generated byfree cyanide. Actually, the reduction of gold-copper generates free cyanide at the cathodesurface which inhibits the electrocrystallization and promotes instantaneous nucleation. Thisproduction of free cyanide also modifies the electrolyte chemistry promoting the formation ofCu(CN)43- instead of Cu(CN)32-. Cu(CN)43- complexes have lower diffusion coefficients andhigher activation energy witch explains why copper content reduces when increasing thethickness of deposits.Then a model was established which explains the influence of free cyanide on thegold-copper electrocrystallization. This model permitted to develop solutions in order to limitthe inhibition phenomena and to optimize the electrocrystallization of gold-copper.One of the solutions developed is the application of an ultrasonic field. The cavitationgenerated by the ultrasonic field eliminates the free cyanide from the cathode surface andoptimize the electrocrystallization process. Gold-copper deposits on shells were then platedunder sonication. SEM and EDS results show that it is possible to make 20 to 40 μm thickcoatings with a controlled composition. All the coatings plated under sonication were smooth(80 ≤ Ra ≤ 230 nm) and compact for various copper contents. The microhardness of thesecoatings varies with grain size (Hall-Petch relation) which depends of copper content.