This thesis encompasses the successful synthesis, characterization (NMR, IR, TGA) and electrochemical testing of novel, potentially redox-active organic materials. These were destined as electrodes for Li-organic cells and/or as catalysts for Li–O2 cells. The electrochemical performance of the dilithiated and tetralithiated salts of 2,5-dialkylamide hydroquinones (with ethyl, isopropyl or benzyl as the alkyl group) and of a partially lithiated polymer with a backbone of alternating 2,5-dicarbonylhydroquinone and 1,4-benzyl diaminophenylene units was evaluated. The small organicsalts exhibited redox-activity around 1.0 V vs Li/Li+ (the terephthaloyl redox system) and 2.8 V vs Li/Li+ (the quinone redox system). These values drifted depending on lithiation degree and alkyl substituent. Redox irreversibility featured these materials which decomposed and dissolved. The polymer exhibited multiple redox-activity in the region of 2.5-3.6 V vs Li/Li+, which was however also irreversible. Further on, the small organic salts were tested as to their impact on the dischargeproduct (Li2O2) yield in Li-O2 cells. Discharge profiles of cells with and without the inclusion of the salts were contrasted to each other; the former having a jagged appearance, indicative of side-reactions. The O2 electrode was studied by XRD todetect the formed products and the amount of Li2O2 present was quantified throug htitration and UV-vis spectroscopy. Organic salt inclusion was found to negatively affect the Li2O2 formation and also attack the Li-electrode.

This thesis has investigated several complex situations that may be encountered in electrochemical studies. Three main situations have been examined, they include the formation of polymer films on electrode surfaces during measurements, a novel nanocatalyst modified electrode surfaces, and organised carbon nanotube (CNT) structures on electrode surfaces. These have been utilised for different electrochemical applications owing to their dissimilar properties. Voltammetric techniques of cyclic voltammetry (CV), square wave voltammetry (SWV) and Fourier transformed large amplitude ac voltammetry (FTACV) have been utilised to examine these reactions. Chapter 3 reports the investigation of catechol oxidation and subsequent polymerisation through crosslinking with D-glucosamine or chitosan. Hydrogel can be formed on the electrode surface during the process, which changes the viscosity of the solution and thus affects the diffusion of chemical species. This process has been examined by several voltammetric techniques. A further examination of the chemical system has also been conducted using FTACV for the first time. Chapter 4 describes the preparation of carbon microsphere supported molybdenum disulfide. The material has been utilised as electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in acidic media, and the performance tested by traditional linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and advanced FTACV techniques. The FTACV technique has been used for the first time for HER processes. In addition, the synthesised particles have also been used for thermal catalytic decomposition of hydrogen sulfide, which shows a significant improvement in the conversion rate over conventional examples. Chapter 5 demonstrates the direct growth of vertically aligned CNT forests on a gold electrode. The electrochemical response of the fabricated electrode has also been examined with ferrocyanide as the redox species. Furthermore, the immobilisation of anthraquinone onto CNT forest has been attempted. The fabricated electrode was utilised as a pH sensor via CV and SWV, and both indicates a well correlated pH-potential relationship in the pH range of 2 to 12. The sensor has also been assessed by the FTACV technique.

This dissertation explores cathodic electrodeposition mechanisms that describe the synthesis of redox-active electrode materials. Several interesting elements are known to deposit at negative potentials (e.g., Mo, Re, Se), and by extending this work, we can tailor the growth of new binary systems (e.g., MoxRe₁₋xOy, MoxSe₁₋xOy) that have enhanced optical and electronic properties. To grasp the subtleties of deposition and understand how the growth of a particular phase is influenced by other species in solution, several analytical methodologies are used to thoroughly characterize film deposition, including chronocoulometry, voltammetry, nanogravimetry, UV-Visible spectroelectrochemistry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS). Chapter 1 is a general introduction that discusses the growth of redox-active metal oxides and alloys with an emphasis on tuning the composition to enhance material performance. Chapter 2 proposes a mechanistic pathway for the deposition of rhenium films from an acidic perrhenate (ReVIIO₄⁻) solution containing both metallic and oxide components. Unlike many other metal anions, it was observed that ReVIIO₄⁻ adsorbs to the electrode surface prior to reduction. As such, ReVIIO₄⁻ is ideally situated to be a redox-active mediator for other electrochemical reactions, and in Chapter 3, this dissertation explores how ReVIIO₄⁻ increases the deposition efficiency of Mo oxide deposition. Depth profiling XPS supported by electrochemical studies demonstrated that Mo and Re deposit separately to form an inhomogeneous material, MoxRe₁₋xOy (0.6 < x ≤ 1.0). Over a limited potential range from –0.3 V to –0.7 V (vs Ag/AgCl) the rhenium mole fraction increases linearly with the applied voltage. Chapter 4 explores the deposition of MoxSe₁₋xOy, and in this case, the incorporation of Mo species in solution shifts the deposition of Se⁰ to more positive potentials. Depending on the applied potential used, voltammetry experiments suggest that a small amount of Mo (<5%) reduces to the zero-valent phase to yield the photosensitive alloy, MoxSey. Chapter 5 discusses future work and presents preliminary data describing the deposition of Se⁰ on ITO using adsorbed ReVIIO₄⁻ as a redox mediator. / text

This Ph. D. thesis presents new methods for the determination of selected clinically relevant electrochemically active compounds. The first part deals with development of determination of tumour biomarkers homovanillic acid (HVA) and vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) in human urine with the use of hollow-fibre based liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) at cathodically pre-treated boron doped diamond electrode (BDDE). Optimum conditions for HF-LPME-DPV of HVA and VMA were as follows: butyl benzoate as supported liquid membrane formed on porous polypropylene hollow-fibre, 0.1 mol L−1 HCl as donor phase and 30 min extraction time. Optimum acceptor phases were 0.1 mol L−1 phosphate buffer of pH 6 with ionic strength set to 0.55 mol L−1 for HVAand 0.1 mol L−1 NaOH for VMA, respectively. HF-LPME-DPV concentration dependencies for HVA and VMAwere linear in the range from 0.4 to 100 µmol L−1 and 0.5 to 100 µmol L−1 . Limits of quantification (LOQ)/detection (LOD) were 1.2/0.4 µmol L−1 for HVA and 1.7/0.5 µmol L−1 for VMA, respectively. The applicability of the developed methods was verified by analysis of human urine. In the second part, voltammetric behaviour of heavy metal poisoning antidote 2,3- dimercapto-1-propane-sulfonic acid (DMPS) was investigated with the use...

Thesis (M.Sc. (Chemistry)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / Recently, the use of electrochemical supercapacitors as energy storage devices has drawn great attention due to their high charge/discharge rate, long life span, high power and energy densities. However, the choice of electrode materials used is vital for the performance of supercapacitors. This study focused on the development of a low cost hybrid electrode based on reduced graphene oxide/metal organic framework composite (rGO/MOF) and a novel palladium (Pd) nanoparticles loaded on rGO/MOF termed Pd-rGO/MOF nanocomposite. The prepared nanocomposites were used for high performance electrochemical double layer capacitor-(EDLC) and battery-type supercapacitors known as supercabattery. The rGO material reported in this work was chemically derived through the oxidation reduction method using a hydrazine as a reducing agent. Furthermore, palladium nanoparticles were loaded on the rGO using the electroless plating method. The rGO/MOF and novel Pd-rGO/MOF nanocomposites were prepared using an impregnation method in dimethylformamide. The physical and morphological properties of the synthesised materials were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The XRD and FTIR analyses showed crystalline phases and vibrational bands for both parent materials, respectively. The TGA/DSC results showed enhancement of the thermal stability of the composite as compared to MOF material. The SEM/EDS and TEM/EDX confirmed the presence of octahedral structure of MOF in the rGO sheet like structure and elemental composition of the synthesised composite. The resultant of Pd-rGO/MOF nanocomposite showed a morphology in which a thin layer of rGO coating existed over MOF with unique bright spots indicating the presence of Pd nanoparticles. This observation agreed well with the structural properties revealed by both XRD and FTIR with the reduction of MOF intensities upon Pd-rGO loading as well as enhancement of thermal stability of the nanocomposites. The electrochemical properties of the prepared electrodes were determined using cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). To evaluate the electrochemical performance of the prepared electrode materials, both two and three electrode cells were assembled. From the CV and GCD results, the nanocomposites demonstrated a battery-type behaviour and therefore asymmetric supercabattery cells were assembled using the composites as positive electrodes, and activated carbon as a negative electrode. The specific capacity of rGO/MOF in three electrode cell was found to be 459.0 C/g at a current density of 1.5 A/g in 3M potassium hydroxide. Furthermore, the asymmetric supercapacitor based on the rGO/MOF nanocomposite and activated carbon (AC) as a negative electrode exhibited a maximum energy density of 11.0 Wh/kg and the maximum power density of 640.45 W/kg. The loading of palladium nanoparticles on the nanocomposite was to improve the electrochemical active sites and the performance of the supercapacitor electrode. After incorporation of Pd nanoparticles, the specific capacitance in three electrode cell improved to 712 C/g at a higher current density of 2 A/g with the same electrolyte. The assembled supercabattery has shown improved maximum energy and energy density of 26.44 Wh/kg and 1599.99 W/kg, respectively. Based on these findings, the synthesised rGO/MOF and Pd-rGO/MOF nanocomposites are promising electrode materials for future supercabattery applications. / NRF (National Research Foundation) and SASOL foundation

The improvement of volumetric energy density remains a key area of research to opti-mize Li-ion batteries for applications such as extending the range of electric vehicles. There is still improvement to be made in the energy density in the positive elec-trode materials. The current thesis deals with determining the phase diagrams of the Li-Mn-Ni-O and Li-Co-Mn-O systems in order to better understand the structures and the electrochemistry of these materials. The phase diagrams were made through careful analysis of hundreds of X-ray di raction patterns taken of milligram-scale combinatorial samples. A number of bulk samples were also investigated. The Li-Mn-Ni-O system is of particular interest as avoiding cobalt lowers the cost of the material. However, this system is very complex: there are two large solid-solution regions separated by three two-phase regions as well as two three-phase regions. Comparing quenched and slow cooled samples shows that the system trans-form dramatically when cooled at rates typically used to make commercial materials. The consequences of these results are that much of the system must be avoided in order to guarantee that the materials remain single phase during cooling. This work should therefore impact signi cantly researchers working on composite electrodes. Two new structures were found. The first was Li-Ni-Mn oxide rocksalt structures with vacancies and ordering of manganese which were previously mistakenly identi ed as LixNi2xO2. The other new structure was a layered oxide with metal site vacancies allowing manganese to order on two superlattices. The electrochemistry of both these materials is presented here. Finally, the region where layered-layered composites form during cooling has been determined. These materials were long looked for along the composition line from Li2MnO3 to LiNi0.5Mn0.5O2 and the most significant consequence of the actual locations of the end-members is that one of the structures contains a high concentration of nickel on the lithium layer. Layered-layered nano-composites formed in this system are therefore not ideal positive electrode materials and it will be demonstrated that single-phase layered materials lead to better electrochemistry.

Les biopiles représentent une solution attractive et ambitieuse pour développer des systèmes alternatifs de conversion d'énergie. Ce travail décrit la construction d'une biopile à éthanol/O2 (oxydation de l'éthanol à l'anode et réduction de l'oxygène à la cathode) avec des électrodes tridimensionnelles possédant une surface spécifique élevée. Le point de départ a été la fabrication et l'optimisation de bioélectrodes enzymatiques par immobilisation d'enzymes et de médiateurs sur des nanofibres de polyacrylonitrile, préparées par la méthode d'électrospinning, et recouvertes d'or. Ces bioélectrodes à base de nanofibres (biocathode et bioanode) ont été assemblées pour construire et caractériser une biopile à éthanol/O2 qui a fourni une densité de puissance de 1600 µW/cm2 par la méthode de polarisation et 210 µW/cm2 par imposition de résistances au système. Enfin, nous avons décrit la fabrication de la première biopile miniaturisée à éthanol/oxygène avec des enzymes immobilisées sur électrodes Au en s'appuyant sur les concepts de la microfluidique. La biopile microfluidique la plus performante a délivré 90 µW/cm2. Afin d'augmenter la puissance délivrée par ces systèmes miniaturisés, des résultats préliminaires ont été obtenus sur l'empilement en série ou en parallèle de biopiles fonctionnant avec des enzymes en solution. / Biofuel cells represent an attractive and ambitious option for developing alternative systems of energy conversion. This work describes the construction of an ethanol/O2 biofuel cell (ethanol oxidation at the anode and oxygen reduction oxygen at the cathode) from tridimensional electrodes with high specific surface area. The starting point was the synthesis and the optimization of the enzymatic bioelectrodes on gold electrodes by immobilizing enzymes and mediatorson polyacrylonitrile nanofibers, obtained by electrospinning method, and recovered by gold nanoparticles. The bioelectrodes (bioanode and biocathode) based on nanofibers have been assembled to build and to characterize an ethanol/O2 biofuel cell that has delivered a power density of 1600 µW/cm2 by the polarization method, and 210 µW/cm2 by imposing resistances to the system. Finally, we have described the production of the first miniaturized ethanol/O2 biofuel cell with immobilized enzymes at Au electrodes based on microfluidic concepts. The best microfluidic biofuel cell has delivered 90 µW/cm2. In order to increase the power delivered by these miniaturized systems, preliminary results have been obtained by stacking biofuel cells, working with enzymes in solution, in series or parallel.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Supercapacitors are charge-storage devices. Compared to batteries, they have higher power density, more excellent reversibility and longer cycle life. Therefore, supercapacitors have played an increasingly important role in the fields of power source especially in automotive applications, such as electric and hybrid electric vehicles. The higher power density of supercapacitors offers improved vehicle acceleration and the ability to recover more energy from regenerative breaking, since they can be charged and discharged at high current. Generally, the key for supercapacitors to achieve high specific power depends on the inherent properties and the surface areas of their electrode materials. Therefore, current research in the field of supercapacitors has been carried out with increased emphasis on the development of new electrode materials. Optimal novel synthesis of electrode materials for supercapacitor application in hybrid vehicles was accomplished with polypyrrole nanowires, manganese oxide and its carbon composites, ruthenium oxide and its carbon composites being the products. A set of structural and chemical parameters influencing the performance of synthesized electrode materials were identified. Parameters included crystallinity, particle size, particle size distribution, surface area, electrochemical activity. A large range of analytical tools were employed in characterizing the electrode materials of interest. High accuracy and precision in the quantitative and qualitative structural characterization of electrode materials collected by x-ray diffractometry, transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy was demonstrated. N₂-physisorption produced surface area and pore size distribution data of high quality. Cyclic voltammetry, charge and discharge cycling, electron impedance spectroscopy were employed in the electrochemical characterization of the synthesized electrode materials and both qualitative and quantitative information obtained. The techniques were able to discriminate between various synthesized electrode materials and identify the highly electroactive materials. Preparation variables could be critically evaluated for the synthesis of electrode materials. The techniques were deemed to be applicable in discriminating high and low activity electrode materials based on their structural and chemical properties.

Developing novel electrode materials is a substantial issue to improve the performance of lithium ion batteries. In the present study, single phase Ti–Sn alloys with different Sn contents of 1 to 10 at% were used to fabricate Ti–Sn–O nanotubes via a straight-forward anodic oxidation step in an ethylene glycol-based solution containing NH4F. Various characterization tools such as SEM, EDXS, TEM, XPS and Raman spectroscopy were used to characterize the grown nanotube films. Our results reveal the successful formation of mixed TiO2/SnO2 nanotubes in the applied voltage range of 10–40 V. The as-formed nanotubes are amorphous and their dimensions are precisely controlled by tuning the formation voltage which turns Ti–Sn–O nanotubes into highly attractive materials for various applications. As an example, the Ti–Sn–O nanotubes offer promising properties as anode materials in lithium ion batteries. The electrochemical performance of the grown nanotubes was evaluated against a Li/Li+ electrode at a current density of 504 μA cm−2. The results demonstrate that TiO2/SnO2 nanotubes prepared at 40 V on a TiSn1 alloy substrate display an average 1.4 fold increase in areal capacity with excellent cycling stability over more than 400 cycles compared to the pure TiO2 nanotubes fabricated and tested under identical conditions. This electrode was tested at current densities of 50, 100, 252, 504 and 1008 μA cm−2 exhibiting average capacities of 780, 660, 490, and 405 μA cm−2 (i.e. 410, 345, 305 and 212 mA h g−1), respectively. The remarkably improved electrochemical performance is attributed to enhanced lithium ion diffusion which originates from the presence of SnO2 nanotubes and the high surface area of the mixed oxide tubes. The TiO2/SnO2 electrodes retain their original tubular structure after electrochemical cycling with only slight changes in their morphology.

Recent development in portable electronics and electric vehicles have increased the demand for high performance lithium ion batteries. However, it is still challenging to produce high energy and high power lithium ion batteries. The major objective of this research is to fabricate advanced electrode materials with enhanced power density and energy density. Porous Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) and its nanocomposites (with Si and reduced graphene oxide (rGO)) synthesized by electrostatic spray deposition (ESD) technique were mainly studied and promising electrochemical performance was achieved. In chapter 3, porous LTO thin film electrode was synthesized by ESD to solve the low energy density and low power density issues by providing good ionic and electronic conductivities. Electrochemical test results showed that it had a large specific capacity of 357 mAh g-1 at 0.15 A g-1, which was even higher than its theoretical capacity. It also exhibited very high rate capability of 98 mAh g-1 at 6 A g-1. The improved electrochemical performance was due to the advantage of ESD generated porous structures. In order to further enhance the power density of LTO, ESD derived LTO/rGO composite electrodes were studied in chapter 4. In chapter 5, high energy density component Si was introduced viii into LTO composite. The synergistic effect between commercial LTO and Si powder was studied. Then, ESD derived LTO/Si/rGO composite was prepared and evaluated. At 0.15 A g-1, a stable capacity of 624 mAh g-1 was observed, which was much higher than the capacities of LTO and LTO/rGO electrodes. In addition, effect of activation process on electrochemical performance of carbon nanofibers (ACNFs) and feasibility of ion intercalation into 2D MMT montmorillonite clay (MMT) were studied and discussed in chapter 6. In summary, we have successfully synthesized various LTO based electrodes by ESD. Both high energy and high power density were achieved as compared to commercial LTO electrode. Through electrochemical characterization and charge storage distribution analysis, origins of the high rate capability were proposed. This work demonstrates ESD as a powerful tool for fabricating high performance porous structures and nanocomposite electrode materials.