The aim of this research is to re-consider the discipline of landscape architecture that I practice and know. To consider an aspect of design method or process that is new to my way of working. THrough the critical reflection of past projects, the notion of time, emergence, and the non-instant landscape, has become the focus of this research. How to design for something that can't appear instant or complete at its inception. What approach is taken to respond to the potential changes of the landscape over time? What strategies can be developed to design on very large sites within limited budgets? The Canberra Arboretum project has become the virtualtesting ground for this design research. Exploring ways to design and develop forests the 205-hectare site that anticipate and respond to the emergent effects of time.

While emergentism is a frequently debated and contentious topic in some areas of philosophy, it is not discussed as often in the sciences. Where it does appear in scientific literature, it is usually a weak formulation that admits as emergent many entities and properties that would not be considered emergent under a stronger formulation. Premature admission of this sort sometimes occurs in the context of physics, but it is more likely to occur in higher-level sciences like biology. In this thesis, I examine the claim that life, a fundamental biological feature, is emergent. In order to do this, I begin by examining what counts as life. I settle on three features that are necessary for life as we know it, and I show that the smallest unit of life is the prokaryotic cell. I then examine the received view of emergentism and identify its key tenets. I consider two of these in depth, as they play a crucial role in my argument. Finally, I consider weaker formulations of emergence found in scientific literature in order to contrast them with the robust philosophical notion developed within this thesis. I argue that, based on a strong formulation of emergence, life should not be considered emergent, though some may dispute this position if a weaker version of emergence is adopted.

While emergentism is a frequently debated and contentious topic in some areas of philosophy, it is not discussed as often in the sciences. Where it does appear in scientific literature, it is usually a weak formulation that admits as emergent many entities and properties that would not be considered emergent under a stronger formulation. Premature admission of this sort sometimes occurs in the context of physics, but it is more likely to occur in higher-level sciences like biology. In this thesis, I examine the claim that life, a fundamental biological feature, is emergent. In order to do this, I begin by examining what counts as life. I settle on three features that are necessary for life as we know it, and I show that the smallest unit of life is the prokaryotic cell. I then examine the received view of emergentism and identify its key tenets. I consider two of these in depth, as they play a crucial role in my argument. Finally, I consider weaker formulations of emergence found in scientific literature in order to contrast them with the robust philosophical notion developed within this thesis. I argue that, based on a strong formulation of emergence, life should not be considered emergent, though some may dispute this position if a weaker version of emergence is adopted.

Claims in the metaphysics of strong emergence, featuring autonomous and possibly reflexive downward causal capacity, methodologically require, though ultimately ignore, units of analysis qua unified wholes. I argue that this avoidance of mereological and wider metaphysical debates denies the metaphysics of emergence clarity and cohesion and urgent application to conceptions of structure and agency. In this thesis, using a refined, non-linear, irreproducible, non-ontologically reductionist open-system physicalism and empiricism, I show that claims in the metaphysics of emergence hastily assume first the integration and subsequently the individuation of objects that become the subject of these strong claims. These assumptions, I believe, are actually the cause for the insurmountable gap between pure ontological reduction on the one side, and pure ontological and irreducible property emergence on the other. Furthermore, in using this new physicalism in the context of strong emergence, the traditional boundary between ontology and epistemology—going far beyond the standard weak-strong divide in the emergence discourse—can no longer be respected. As such, the nature of emergent properties is critical to assessing the nature of objects qua wholes with respect to the conditions for their integration and individuation. The major contribution to the metaphysics of emergence that this thesis provides is the realisation that, when we assume all physical objects are open and porous, all claims for persisting, emergent wholes are necessarily based on physical assumptions of integration and individuation. Synthetically I offer a method for understanding the individuation of ‘quidditious’ objects via properties when such a physicalist framework is employed.

Revised; Originally Published: 2004 / 3 pp. / Wheat and barley are the two major small grain crops in Arizona. These crops can produce yields near maximum at a wide range of seeding rates due to yield component compensation. Grain yield is determined by plants per unit area, tillers per plant, kernels per head, and kernel weight. At a low seeding rate, the plant will compensate for fewer plants per unit area by producing more tillers per plant and larger heads. At a high seeding rate, fewer tillers are produced compared to a low seeding rate, and the heads are smaller. Therefore, grain yields near maximum can be produced at a wide range of seeding rates if conditions are favorable (see Fig. 1). Weed control can be a problem at low seeding rates and lodging may be a problem at high seeding rates. The optimum seeding rate for small grains depends on a variety of factors which will be discussed

Master of Science / Department of Agronomy / Johanna A. Dille / Understanding the impact of early spring environmental conditions on kochia seed biology as well as time from flowering to seed maturation could suggest effective control practices. Kochia seed accessions were exposed to moisture stress or different phytohormone combinations across a range of temperature conditions to evaluate cumulative seed germination. Base temperature (T[subscript b]) and base water potential (ψb) were determined and used to calculate thermal (TT), hydro (HT), and hydrothermal (HTT) time to describe cumulative percent kochia germination across the environmental conditions. Base temperature was 2.7 C and ψb was -1.70, -1.62, and -0.92 MPa at 11, 6, and 4 C, respectively. To reach 50% cumulative seed germination, more days (2 and 11 d) and more TT (16.7 and 74.8 Cd) were needed as temperature decreased from 11 to 4 C and as water potential decreased from 0.0 to -1.2 MPa. Using the HT and HTT scale helped to account for effect of moisture stress. A small fraction of seeds under low temperature and high moisture stress germinated faster (10% at 6 C and -1.2 MPa) compared to more seed germinated at higher temperature and less moisture stress (91% at 11 C and -0.0 MPa). Addition of abscisic acid (10 µM ABA) decreased germination by 16% at both 23 and 6 C, while addition of gibberellic acid (10 µM GA) increased germination by 14% at both 23 and 6 C. Addition of ABA delayed time to 50% germination at 6 C compared to water, with 3 days or 10 Cd. Similarly, addition of GA shortened time to 50% germination at 6 C as it took 8.9 d and 29.3 Cd as compared to 10 d and 33 Cd in water. Kochia seed development was observed visually in greenhouse conditions after controlled and natural pollination. Kochia flower buds changed color from light green to dark brown by 36 days after pollination (DAP). At 36 DAP, buds had seeds enclosed in them but a germination study showed they were not yet viable. Hence, seed germination decreased and seeds needed more time to accumulate enough thermal and hydro unit before germinating as temperature and moisture stresses increased from 11 to 4 C and -0.0 to -1.2 MPa. We conclude that kochia seeds can germinate under very low temperature and moisture potential. Hence, should be controlled very early in the growing season. Phytohormones ABA and GA decrease and increase the germination of seeds, respectively. Kochia takes more than 36 DAP to produce viable seeds. Information on flower bud changes after pollination have implications for both kochia management and research.

The emergence of a language is rarely directly observed in a natural environment. Similar to a phenomenon previously observed in Nicaragua, deaf Dominican children appear to have created a rudimentary form of manual communication in absence of comprehensible linguistic input. The evolution of this communication system over the course of five years (2007-2012) is documented as part of a cross-cultural and cross-generational study in which sign complexity is analyzed. The role of innate and environmental components of language creation and acquisition are discussed using data from hearing children and parents, including the parents of the deaf Dominican children cited above. Results confirm that a new communication system is indeed slowly emerging in the Dominican Republic, and that this system shows signs of evolution in the period extending from 2007 to 2012. Signs produced by the deaf Dominican children meet the minimal requirements for a communicative symbol, show signs of mutual intelligibility, and differ from the signs of the other implemented Sign Languages in the Dominican Republic. Two cohorts of manual communicators appear to be present, and younger signers seem to have more advanced linguistic competencies in comparison to older signers within the community. The signs that are part of the observed Dominican manual communication system also appear to differ in complexity from those produced by hearing adults and children, supporting the presence of innate abilities for language creation. Specifically, the deaf Dominican children are generally found to have more diversified sign repertoires and to display faster signing rates over time, in comparison to hearing adults and children. Qualitative data and quantitative trends further support a more complex understanding by deaf children of the use of signs as an independent communication system from speech. Analyses looking at the impact of input on language creation provides some support for the existence of infant-directed signing in a way similar to what is observed with infant-directed speech. The use of repetitions by hearing adults using infant-directed silent gestures could provide support for usage-based theories of language development. That being said, young hearing children with no prior exposure to Sign Language and with minimal relative linguistic experience were found to produce signs equivalent in complexity to those of hearing adults, therefore potentially providing further support for an innate understanding of complex linguistic rules. Deaf Dominican children were further found to surpass the input received by hearing adults over time. In all, this research is consistent with previous studies attesting for children’s natural ability for language creation and development.

Doctor Educationis / The need for in-depth knowledge of dental emergence and calcification in orthodontic diagnosis and treatment planning cannot be disputed. Serial extractions, treatment timing, bite opening and closing, expansion and various other orthodontic procedures cannot be successfully executed without an in depth knowledge of the calcification and eruption of teeth. Besides its orthodontic implications, dental calcification and eruption plays a significant role in physical anthropology, forensic odontology, endocrinology and nutrition (Demirjian, 1978). Forensic scientists are agreed that teeth constitute the most important and reliable means for determining age from approximately 10 week in utero to old age (Altini, 1983). It is a generally accepted fact that there is no correlation between biological age and chronological age (Prahl-Andersen and Van der Linden, 1972; Demirjian, 1978), an aspect, which will be discussed in further detail later in the review of the literature. Biological age is seen to be a more accurate indicator of an individuals maturity than chronological age (Moorees et al, 1963; Prahl-Andersen and Van der Linden, 1973; Oemirjian et al, 1973). However, allocating a biological age to an individual is not an easy exercise as no definite consensus has, to date, been reached regarding the best method of determining biological age (Moorees et al, 1963; Garn et al, 1967; Demirjian, 1978). Today, many different methods are being used to establish this, for example bone age, height, menarche, circumpubertal growth and dental age.

Research suggests that gender role, rather than sex, is associated with the perception of individuals as leaders. The current study tests the effect of gender role on leadership emergence by using a pattern approach and manipulating task-type. 200 female undergraduate subjects, categorized based on their personality pattern of three variables (i.e., masculinity, femininity, and intelligence), were placed in groups of four members. Groups were randomly assigned to a consensus building or initiating structure task condition. Hypothesis one, which predicted that feminine-intelligent individuals would emerge more than masculine-intelligent or mixed personality pattern individuals in the consensus building task condition, was not supported. However, support was found for hypothesis two which predicted that masculine-intelligent individuals would be perceived as more leader-like than feminine-intelligent or mixed personality pattern individuals in the initiating structure task. Partial support was found for the emergence of androgynous-intelligent individuals in the consensus building task condition (hypothesis three), but full support was found for the emergence of androgynous-intelligent individuals in the initiating structure task (hypothesis four). The implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed. / Master of Science

The purpose of the present study was to investigate leadership emergence in mixed sex groups. Prior research has demonstrated that females have difficulty emerging as leaders in mixed sex groups. Thirty mix sex groups (two males, one female, and one female confederate) were asked to participate in a small group activity and then completed a series of scales to assess leadership emergence and inferred leadership traits. It was found that a female confederate exhibiting behaviors consistent with females high in intelligence, dominance, and self-efficacy emerged as the leader more frequently than males low in either one or two of those same three traits. In addition, the female confederate was seen as possessing more leadership traits than males low in either one or two of those traits. Implications for these results are discussed. / Master of Science