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The language situation of today's world is drastically different from that which existed in the past. English has become the global language -it is used more and is more widespread than any other language has ever been. At the same time we are faced with large-scale language endangerment which could result in the extinction of half or more of the world's languages. While not the only reason for language endangerment, the status of English as the global language has important consequences for all other languages and therefore deserves to be studied carefully. However, exactly what English means for other languages and cultures is far from simple and there is no general agreement on this issue. English has been seen as a destructive language, a pluralistic language and as an irrelevant language. This thesis explores the issue of global English as it applies to China. English language learning and teaching has been, and by all indications will continue to be, an important part of China's reform and modernisation. China is also an ethnically and linguistically diverse country with 55 minority nationalities and over 80 languages. What does the spread of English mean for China's language situation? Drawing on data gained through fieldwork and published sources, I argue that English in China is multifaceted, that is it has destructive, pluralistic and irrelevant elements. English is now used more and has higher status in China than at any time in the past and this has raised some concerns. However, English is not displacing Chinese language or culture. English is actually taking on Chinese features in both form and function. The Chinese language, far from being threatened, is currently expanding both in China and the world at large. Much effort has gone into promoting putonghua and there is great interest in learning Chinese in many parts of the world. China's minority languages, like those elsewhere, are under varying degrees of threat. However, English is not the main reason for this situation. At the present time at least it has relatively little presence in minority areas. Despite the fact that it is not destroying China's languages and cultures, English remains a significant issue for China and must be dealt with thoughtfully and carefully, especially among the minority nationalities. I argue that it is possible for China to acquire English without losing its linguistic diversity. Whether this can be achieved is a question of the resources and political will required to do so rather than any inherent difficulty with speaking two or more languages. To this end, the Context Approach is put forward as a possible way to improve English language teaching and learning among the minorities. In light of the results of this study, I suggest new directions for research, both on language issues in China and in general. I also argue for a new approach to our study of English as a global language and language endangerment. We need to appreciate the complexities of English on a local level as well as a global level and focus our attention more on how English can be taught to speakers of endangered languages in such a way that does not lead to language loss.

This thesis examines Neo-Aramaic as an endangered language in the diaspora. It sheds some light on some linguistic and pragmatic aspects that have received little scholarly attention to date in Semitic literature, language endangerment and first language (L1) erosion in language contact studies. This thesis also draws attention to the fact that research on North Eastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) dialects needs to take into account that language (pragmatics) is an emergent phenomenon, especially in contract situations. Linguists need to shift gears and start empirical research that is derived from contextualized language use. In three studies, the thesis addresses the role that acculturation plays in molding L1 communicative competence and, in turn, macro-linguistic components of language, such as idioms, metaphors and politeness strategies. Chapter 2 deals with animal-based metaphors as conceptual categories belonging to a rudimentary level of knowledge. We report evidence which shows that Neo-Aramaic-English bilinguals (NA-E) failed to provide interpretations of culturally distinct animal-based metaphors that align with the interpretations of older NA speakers. This finding indicates that the cognitive process of conceptualizing animal metaphors is motivated by the way NA-E bilinguals perceive the world around them in an environment where NA is considered the language of an ethnocultural group. This shift in the NA-E bilinguals’ cognition represents a departure from the concerted conceptualizations of their L1 culture. In chapter 3, we examined NA-E bilinguals’ comprehension of two sets of decomposable and non-decomposable NA idioms obtained from older NA speakers and chosen on the basis of their high familiarity. NA-E bilinguals’ performance showed a marked decline on both decomposable and nondecomposable task compared to Canadian-English monolingual speakers (CE). The evidence reported here shows a high degree of L1 erosion in figurative competence which is, to a large extent, dependent on cultural beliefs and conventions. The study in chapter 4 documents the effect of acculturation on NA-E bilinguals’ behavioural competencies in terms of separateness and connectedness politeness strategies. Chapter 4 foregrounds the idea that NA speakers represent a collectivist culture whereas CE speakers belong to individualistic cultures. The study shows that NA-E bilinguals diverge from the politeness patterns of their cultural group, but their shift is compatible with the individualistic cultural norms. It provides fresh evidence that cultural adaptation to the majority group shapes cultural cognition and thus prompts L1 speakers to approximate L2 cultural preferences. Taken all together, the findings of this thesis demonstrate that language erosion is not limited to the structural aspects of language (morphosyntax and phonology), but it extends, in a regressive fashion, to include more advanced skills that are necessary to develop native-like proficiency. By and large, language atrophy is not necessarily caused by mere linguistic factors, but rather by a number of extralinguistic factors and culture is one of them. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

By the end of this century, half of the approximately 6000 extant languages will cease to be transmitted from one generation to the next. The field of language documentation seeks to make a record of endangered languages before they reach the point of extinction, while they are still in use. The work of documenting and describing a language is difficult and extremely time-consuming, and resources are extremely limited. Developing efficient methods for making lasting records of languages may increase the amount of documentation achieved within budget restrictions. This thesis approaches the problem from the perspective of computational linguistics, asking whether and how automated language processing can reduce human annotation effort when very little labeled data is available for model training. The task addressed is morpheme labeling for the Mayan language Uspanteko, and we test the effectiveness of two complementary types of machine support: (a) learner-guided selection of examples for annotation (active learning); and (b) annotator access to the predictions of the learned model (semi-automated annotation). Active learning (AL) has been shown to increase efficacy of annotation effort for many different tasks. Most of the reported results, however, are from studies which simulate annotation, often assuming a single, infallible oracle. In our studies, crucially, annotation is not simulated but rather performed by human annotators. We measure and record the time spent on each annotation, which in turn allows us to evaluate the effectiveness of machine support in terms of actual annotation effort. We report three main findings with respect to active learning. First, in order for efficiency gains reported from active learning to be meaningful for realistic annotation scenarios, the type of cost measurement used to gauge those gains must faithfully reflect the actual annotation cost. Second, the relative effectiveness of different selection strategies in AL seems to depend in part on the characteristics of the annotator, so it is important to model the individual oracle or annotator when choosing a selection strategy. And third, the cost of labeling a given instance from a sample is not a static value but rather depends on the context in which it is labeled. We report two main findings with respect to semi-automated annotation. First, machine label suggestions have the potential to increase annotator efficacy, but the degree of their impact varies by annotator, with annotator expertise a likely contributing factor. At the same time, we find that implementation and interface must be handled very carefully if we are to accurately measure gains from semi-automated annotation. Together these findings suggest that simulated annotation studies fail to model crucial human factors inherent to applying machine learning strategies in real annotation settings. / text

This dissertation, based on pilot research in the U.S. and Kenya in 2002 and fieldwork in two secondary schools in Kenya in 2004, has a twofold focus. First, it examines language ideologies of English, Kiswahili, and Kenya's 53 indigenous languages, in particular Gikuyu [Kikuyu], in the context of Kenyan discourses of nationalism, education, and development. Second, it shows how these language ideologies are contributing to the language endangerment of Kenya's indigenous languages.The stable trilingualism enjoyed by the parents of today's young Kenyans is not shared by their children. The research question that drove this dissertation was, Why are trilingual parents raising bilingual children? This dissertation seeks to answer that question by drawing on ethnographic observations, consultant interviews, and newspaper data from Kenya's largest newspapers, the Nation and the Standard. Rapid language shift, occurring in just the past 20 years in Kenya, has put even large languages like Gikuyu into an endangered status. A historically contextualized understanding of the reasons behind the shift is necessary in order for the trend to be reversed.

My diploma thesis deals with the addictive substances in road transport, especially with alcohol and other narcotic drugs used by drivers of motorized and non-motorized vehicles. The thesis is divided into three main parts. First chapter provides the definition and clarification of the terms. Second chapter, Substantive law, contains two subchapters, Criminal law and Administrative law. The subchapter Criminal law analyzes crimes that can be committed in conjunction with the addictive substances in road transport, namely endangerment under influence of an addictive substance according to § 274 TZ, general endangerment and general endangerment alleging negligence according to § 272 TZ and § 273 TZ and inebriation according to § 360 TZ. The most attention is paid to the offence of endangerment under the influence of an addictive substance, which is, as the most frequently committed crime in connection with the addictive substances, analyzed in terms of elements of crime, complicity and participation, stages of the commission of the crime, qualified elements of crime and sanctions. The second subchapter, Administrative law, examines three mostly committed minor offences related to the addictive substances in road transport. These are minor offences according to § 125c odst. 1 písm. b), písm. c) and...

The aim of this qualitative study is to understand the processes around the prevention of child endangerment in deportation processes in Germany focusing on street-level bureaucrats. Eight social welfare professionals directly working with refugee minors and having experiences with deportation processes where refugee minors are or were involved distributed along three Federal States participated in this study. Semi-structured interviews were conducted online and were analysed afterwards by using discourse analysis. Strong engagement, emotional involvement, frustration, and anger but also objective views and uncertainty when it comes to the prevention of child endangerment in deportation processes emerged. The deportation process is viewed as something very horrible and not compatible with the best interests of the child leading to cases of child endangerment. Responsibility for this was attributed to the system/state, street-level bureaucrats, as well as parents. Prevention of child endangerment in this context is seen as very difficult as there appear to be barriers at different levels where improvement is needed, containing a professional and personal level, the parental level, and a political and state level. The results were discussed then by using the concept of institutional logics and Lipsky’s theory of street-level bureaucracy. The street-level bureaucrats’ reasoning and practice are informed by several institutional logics which are interpreted and valued differently and raise conflicts which need to be solved. The human rights logics and national state logics, as well as logics of professionalism and logics of bureaucracy play an important role in this context.

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依衛生福利部國民健康署指出，飲酒會導致如車禍、家暴、肝癌及肝硬化等事故與疾病，這些都是少量卻有顯著危害。目前臺灣的酒品隨處可購得，但國人及整個社會卻尚未學會到如何正確與「酒」相處；而臺灣特有的拚酒文化更是常拚出一身病來，許多人因酒而失業、家庭失和，甚至喪命。更可怕的是，飲酒還會造成無辜大眾平白犧牲。有鑒於飲酒過量所帶來的危害，酒害的防制已是世界各國共同的議題。 本研究從長時間來回顧臺灣飲酒消費的情況及變化，同時觀察臺灣飲酒家庭戶長與家庭成員的特性，及各縣市飲酒消費的情形，以作為我國未來在制定酒害防制政策時之參考。本文利用行政院主計總處提供之1990至2012年「家庭收支調查報告」資料來進行分析，結果發現飲酒消費支出金額與所得呈現正向關係，惟所得低的家庭，其飲酒消費支出占可支配所得的比重，較所得高的家庭大。另飲酒消費支出較高的家庭，其教育程度及平均年齡相對較低，且男性成員比率偏高，倘若針對教育程度較低者、年輕及男性族群，透過教育及政策行銷，加強渠等對飲酒危害的風險認知，進而減少飲酒量，將有利提升國民健康。 / It is published that traffic accidents, certain social problems or body illnesses are often the results of alcohol drinking events; such as car accident, family abuse, liver cancer or cirrhosis etc., reported by Health Promotion Administration Ministry of Health and Welfare. Such alcohol problems are rare, but serious once happened. Alcohols can be bought everywhere in Taiwan, but still Taiwanese don’t know how to deal with drinking. One of the Taiwanese drinking features, the bottom-up, also adds to the alcohol problems. Many unemployment, family quarrels or even the human lives are caused or jeopardized by over-drinking. Sometimes, even an innocent people could be hurt through a drinking event. Due to the endangerment that is developed by over drinking, that how to prevent it is now a common issue to discuss with all over the world. This essay examines the long-term alcohol consumption changes in Taiwan, observes, at the same time, the characteristics of alcohol-drinking families and the family head of the household, and compares the alcohol consumption situation in different town, county areas in Taiwan. Based on the data form the year 1990 to 2012 in the “Report on the Survey of Family Income and Expenditure in Taiwan Area”, it is found that the expenditure on alcohols and the income of a family are positively related. If we compare the alcohol expenditure to the total disposable income, it is found that the ratio is higher for the poor family than those rich ones. For those families with higher alcohol expenditures, we find their family members are comparatively younger, less educated, and consisted of more male than female members. If we aimed at those classified groups of less educated, younger and male to strengthen their awareness of the alcohol risks through education and policy advocacy to reduce their drinking, our national health will be enhanced.