The phenomenon global warming has necessitated the need for a transition towards more environmentally friendly behaviours. One tool amongst many, recognized by the European Commission as effective to fight global warming is energy communities. Västerås municipality’s project team is exploring the opportunity for their new district, Sätra, to operate as an energy community. This report showcases Sätra's economic, social, and technical circumstances, as well as Sweden's regulatory framework. It examines the potential role of local electricity market and smart grid with an energy community. To obtain the results, the methodology included interviews, document analysis, literature reviews, and a feasibility study. The results revealed that the barriers were lack of definition for energy community, lack of awareness among residents, marginalized groups, intermittency of renewable energy sources, and a lack of funding for initiatives. The incentives and mitigation tactics were to create a definition for 'energy communities,' to establish an umbrella organization, raise awareness, and secure funding. The result was compared with the case study of Sätra, and the Västerås municipality’s project team demonstrated utilization of incentives and mitigation strategies in the technical, regulatory, and economic aspects, indicating a likelihood of feasibility. The aspect in which the team did not utilize incentives and mitigation for the barriers was the social aspect. Local electricity markets were not deemed economically practical, but were acknowledged as resilient and efficient in energy distribution. Smart grid’s role in energy communities was, unanimously agreed upon, to be crucial for its features such as cybersecurity, energy efficiency, integration of renewable energy sources, and flexibility.

Blockchain technology has attracted a lot of interest recently. Many different sectors from all over the world are now researching the technology to find any prospective uses that can enhance their company. This is because, by introducing new processes, blockchain technology has the ability to fundamentally alter the way that current systems now handle all types of transactions. The loyalty reward program sector, which deals with the exchange of loyalty points, may be able to take advantage of blockchain technology’s potential. Different Loyalty Reward Program models, however, define the Loyalty Reward Programs sector. Therefore, the current study investigates how blockchain technology may affect the development of a new loyalty reward program. To conduct the research, an exploratory multiple-case study was employed. In this thesis, we first investigate the use of blockchain in energy communities and their consumer incentives. Then we proposed a model for a novel blockchain-based rewarding system and examined multiple case studies of their usage in energy communities. Our results show that using a blockchain-based rewarding system in energy communities can benefit the community, environment and energy consumers.

Ensuring affordable and clean energy is vital for sustainable development. The vulnerability of the European energy system has highlighted the need for resilient solutions. Renewable Energy Communities (RECs), essentially neighbors producing and sharing electricity, have emerged as promising components of a resilient energy system. Policymakers recognize the significance of grassroots initiatives like RECs in shaping the future energy landscape. However, the establishment of RECs is still relatively new, particularly in Sweden, generating increased interest within the academic community. Existing research primarily focuses on established RECs, necessitating a deeper understanding of their formation. To bridge this research gap, we conducted an exploratory and qualitative study to investigate homeowners’ motives and barriers for participating in RECs, as well as their expectations for external support. We developed an analytical framework based on the conceptualization of RECs as a distinct form of Community Enterprises. This framework enabled us to explore homeowners’ perspectives on the motivations and challenges associated with these entities. We collected primary data through 10 semi-structured interviews with homeowners residing in a neighborhood of a medium-sized town in southern Sweden. Our findings reveal that homeowners are primarily motivated by the economic impact of participating in RECs. However, they also perceive several barriers that hinder their involvement. These challenges stem from the absence of community determinants and characteristics, as well entrepreneurial spirit and leadership that promote the emergence of RECs. Homeowners generally hold a positive attitude towards RECs but express a preference for an intermediary who can initiate and facilitate their engagement. Intermediaries have the potential to establish RECs, as defined by EU law, by compensating for the lack of social capital and trust through formal control structures, while leveraging external expertise as champions and organizers. This concept challenges the notion of RECs as a specific type of Community Enterprises.

The diploma thesis introduces distributed generation in context of future state of electricity markets. The subject of the thesis is to introduce new trends in electricity markets, such as flexibility, prosumers, aggregator and energy communities. Moreover, the thesis describes blockchain technology and its utilization in future state of electricity markets.

EU har, genom antagandet av paketet för ren energi 2019, erkänt värdet och potentialen hos lokala energisamhällen inom Europeiska unionen. Det har observerats vara ett lönsamt verktyg för de europeiska medborgarna att direkt kunna delta i energiomställningen. Betydelsen av medborgarnas deltagande i kampen mot klimatförändringar har fastställts som avgörande och som en andra pelare bredvid uppifrån-och-ner-strategin genom Parisavtalet 2015. Denna uppsats fastställer definitionen och funktionen av lokala energigemenskapersom en del av den europeiska klimatstrategin. Svenska energimarknadsinspektionen har nyligen släppt en rapport och ett förslag om genomförandet av lokala energigemenskaper i Sverige. Jag tycker att förslaget är otillräckligt och otillfredsställande mot bakgrund av målet och syftet bakom EU-direktiven. Värdet av detta verktyg har inte erkänts i förslaget. Genom att granska deras förslag har jag hittat ett par viktiga aspekter som bör beaktas, särskilt för gemenskaper för förnybar energi, när de implementeras i Sverige. Bland annat bör Sverige göra en vidare utredning kring de ekonomiska incitamenten, möjligheten att förvalta och äga eget nät samt lokala energigemenskaper i relation till de nationella klimatmålen och Sveriges behov. Avslutningsvis kunde konstateras att det finns en hel del att reflektera över innan implementeringen kan färdigställas i Sverige. Anförda aspekter i denna uppsats är långt ifrån uttömmande och avser enbart de aspekter jag funnit särskilt viktiga. För att lokala energigemenskaper ska nå framgång, särskilt gemenskaper för förnybar energi, förutsätter det att Sverige är beredd på att ändra sin nuvarande strategi, men också inse att det finns ett behov av förändring. / EU have, through the adoption of the Clean energy package 2019, recognized the value and potential of local energy communities within the European union. They have been observed to be a profitable tool for the European citizens to be able to directly participate in the energy transition. The importance of the citizens participation in the fight against climate changes have been established as crucial and a second pillar beside the top-down approach through the Paris Agreement. This essay aims to determine the definition and function of local energy communities as a part of the European climate strategy. The Swedish Energy Markets Inspectorate has recently released a report and proposal on the implementation of local energy communities in Sweden. I have found the proposal inadequate and unsatisfactory in the light of the goal and purpose behind the EU directives. The value of this tool has not been recognised in the proposal. By reviewing their proposal, I have found a couple of key aspects that should be heeded, especially concerning Renewable energy communities, when implemented in Sweden. For example, it is deemed necessary that Sweden needs to further investigate the economic incentivesfor these communities. Further investigation is also needed regarding the possibility for Renewable energy communities to own and govern their own grid. Local energy communities as a tool to achieve the national climate goals and to solve other energy-related issues in Sweden should be explored. Finally, we can ascertain that there are several aspects to reflect further upon before the finalization of the implementation of local energy communities. Aspects touched upon in this essay is far from exhaustive and reflect those that I have deemed to be of utmost importance. To unlock the potential of local energy communities and ensure their success, especially concerning renewable energy communities, Sweden must be prepared to change their current strategy as well as realize the need for said change.

Integrating the electrical and thermal community buildings' energy systems can play an important role in harvesting wasted energy resources and reduction of carbon emissions from buildings and electricity generation sectors. It also increases demand management flexibility by minimizing the curtailed electricity on the grid through electrified heating without increasing the electricity peak demand. The current work examines Integrated Community Energy and Harvesting systems (ICE-Harvest), a new generation of distributed energy resources systems (DERs). They prioritize the harvesting of community waste energy resources—for example, heat rejected from cooling processes and distributed peak electricity fossil-fuel-fired generators, as well as energy from curtailed clean grid electricity resources—to help in satisfying the heating demands of commercial and residential buildings. As such, ICE-Harvest systems provide a solution that can minimize greenhouse gas emissions from high-energy-consumption buildings in cold-climate regions such as North America and Northern Europe. In the current research, a thermal energy sharing model was developed to provide a dynamic characterization of the potential benefits of integrating and harvesting energy within a community of any number of buildings. The proposed model estimates the amount of rejected heat from cooling and refrigeration systems that can be simultaneously collected and used to heat other nearby buildings connected with a low temperature microthermal network (MTN). It also determines the proper timing and quantity of electricity used by the heat pumps in low-temperature MTNs as well as the reduction of both GHG emissions and the energy required from the EMC relative to conventional stand-alone systems. For an energy-balanced community cluster, the model showed that, over the course of a year, the energy harvesting would reduce this node’s GHG emissions by 74% and cover approximately 82% of the heating requirements compared to the BAU system. The results also revealed that the diversity in thermal demand between the connected buildings increases the harvesting potential. This research develops two clustering methods for the ICE-Harvest system. The proposed methods are clustering around anchor building and density-based (DB) clustering with post-processing by adding the closest anchor building to each cluster that focuses on the diversity of the buildings in each cluster. The energy sharing model is used to examine these techniques in comparison with the density-based clustering technique, the commonly used technique in the literature on a large database of 14000 high energy consumption buildings collected in Ontario, Canada. The results of this case study reveal that DB clustering with post-processing resulted in the largest emission reduction per unit piping network length of 360 t CO2eq /km/year. In addition, this research identified seven different cluster categories based on the total and simultaneous cooling-to-heating ratios of each cluster. The ICE harvest system integrates the thermal and electrical networks to add more flexibility to the electricity grid and schedule the electrification of heating (EoH). Current research provides a reduced model for the ICE-Harvest system to study its impact for over 1100 clusters of different categories on a provincial scale on the GHG emission and electricity demand from the grid. The use of ICE-Harvest systems at this scale can displace the energy required from the gas-fired heating resources by 11 TWh, accounting for over 70% of the clusters’ total heating requirements. This results in a 1.9 Mt CO2eq reduction in total GHG emissions, which represents around 60% of the clusters’ emissions. Operating conditions of the thermal network (TN) in the integrated community energy systems affect the ability to harvest waste energy and the reduction of GHG emissions as well as the electricity peak demand and consumption. In the current research, modeling of different thermal distribution network operating scenarios was performed for the different community energy profile clusters. These operation scenarios include low-temperature (fourth generation), ultra-low (fifth generation), a binary range-controlled temperature modulating thermal network operating between Low and Ultra-low temperatures (ICE-Harvest), and a new proposed scenario wherein a continuous range-controlled temperature modulating micro-thermal network. The continuous range-controlled temperature scenario shows the most benefits with the large implementation on the identified clusters. It adds more flexibility to balance the electricity grid as well as results in large GHG emission savings while controlling the increase in site electricity peak demand. The load profile of the cluster affects the selection of the most beneficial energy integrated system. This research shows that, for most of the heating-dominated clusters, it is better to employ the continuous range-controlled temperature TN with peak control and CHP on sites to serve the high heating demands along with short term and seasonal thermal storage. For the majority of balanced and /or cooling-dominated clusters, it is better to implement more carbon-free resources to the electricity grid or on-site that produce electricity but are not associated with heat such as wind, hydro, and solar PV panels. Parametric studies were performed in this research including changing the CHP size, the CHP utilization efficiency, and the grid gas-fired generators usage conditions to show their impact on the GHG emissions reduction from the clustered buildings. The analysis was implemented on a fleet of 1139 sites in Ontario and the results showed that the CHP size and operating hours have a measurable impact on GHG emission saving. The system can reach up to 58% and 66.5% emission savings of the total sites’ emissions with 93% and 39% operating hours respectively following the Ontario grid natural gas peaking power plants for the years of 2016 and 2017 with larger CHP sizes. The largest share of GHG emission saving in 2016 is by the CHP (61%) as opposed to 30% in 2017. The reduced models introduced in this research for the thermal energy sharing, the ICE-harvest system operation and sizing, and the MTN operation aid the investigation of the impact of the large implementation of the ICE-Harvest systems on the GHG emissions and electricity grid. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The joint European electricity production in 2022 was 2.9 PWh where 34.3% of the electricity came from sources of natural gas and coal. However, to be able to achieve the goals of the Paris agreement, greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 and thus call for a rapid decarbonatization. For this, using less energy originating from fossil sources and increasing the use of renewable energy is crucial. One way to decentralize and implement renewable energy is using energy communities. This is also a way for actors to participate in energy trading and to enable collective ownership of local production and storage technology. However, since the electricity grid in Sweden is largely outdated, this poses as a problem for continued electrification. To evaluate if decentralisation of the electricity distribution and production can minimise the load on the national grid, The research institute of Sweden (RISE) has initiated pilot studies to assess the possibility and impact of introducing energy communities in Sweden with the help of KTH for simulations. As part of such a pilot study this thesis focuses on a district in Örebro named Tamarinden, where it is planned to implement a local DC-network to allow sharing of locally PV produced electricity. Through using the Python package Panda Power as well as quantitative analyses in Excel, the thesis aim was to propose a configuration of the standard local distribution grid and analyse the impact from PVs, battery storage as well as the DC-network focusing on grid stability and solar penetration. In addition, an economic feasibility analysis was made. The results showed that an energy community greatly impact the solar penetration and that grid stability improvements could not be determined. This could be due to the choice of production technology, solar PV, as these have peak production during low demand season. Furthermore, a proposition for the local grid configuration was constructed. Nevertheless, the economic feasibility showed that even though the impact on PV penetration is great, the cost of the technology is too high in comparison to savings made in terms of lowered electricity demand. In conclusion, the implementation of such an energy community in Sweden is currently unbeneficial from an economic point of view. / Den europeiska elproduktionen var år 2022 2.9 PWh var av 34.3% härstammade från kol och naturgas. För att uppnå målen i Parisavtalet måste växthusgasutsläppen sluta öka senast 2025 därför krävs snabb avkarbonisering. För att åstadkomma detta måste användandet av fossila energikällor minska och användandet av förnyelsebar energi öka. Ett sätt att möjliggöra denna omställning är genom energigemenskaper. Detta är även ett sätt för aktörer att delta i energimarknaden samt att möjliggöra kollektivt ägarskap av lokal produktions och lagrings teknologier. Då elnätet i Sverige till stora delar är utdaterat skapar detta problematik, för en fortsatt elektrifiering. För att utvärdera huruvida decentralisering av eldistributionen och elproduktionen kan minska belastningen på det nationella distributionsnätet, driver Research institute of Sweden (RISE) tillsammans med KTH pilotstudier för att undersöka möjligheterna och påverkan av att introducera energigemenskaper i Sverige. Som en del av en av pilotstudierna fokuserar denna uppsats på en stadsdel i Örebro som heter Tamarinden, där det är planerat att implementera ett lokalt DC-nätverk för att möjliggöra delning av lokalt producerad el. Genom modellering i Pythons paket Panda Power och kvantitativa analyser i Excel, var uppsatsens mål att presentera en möjlig konfiguration av lokalnätet samt att analysera påverkan från solceller, batteri lagring samt DC-nätverket på nätstabiliteten och solpenetrationen. Ytterligare gjordes en ekonomisk genomförbarhetsanalys. Resultaten visade att en energigemenskap kraftigt påverkar solpenetrationen och att förbättringar av nätstabiliteten inte kunde fastställas. Detta kan bero på valet av produktionsteknik, solceller, eftersom dessa har topproduktion under lågsäsong. Dessutom konstruerades ett förslag för den lokala nätkonfigurationen. Den ekonomiska genomförbarheten visade dock att även om effekten på solcellspenetrationen är stor är kostnaden för tekniken för hög i jämförelse med besparingar i form av sänkt efterfrågan på el. Sammanfattningsvis är genomförandet av en sådan energigemenskap i Sverige för närvarande ofördelaktigt ur ekonomisk synvinkel.

Without decarbonizing cities energy and climate objectives cannot be achieved as cities account for approximately two thirds of energy consumption and emissions. This goal of decarbonizing cities has to be facilitated by promoting net-zero/positive energy buildings and districts and replicating them, driving cities towards sustainability goals. Many projects in smart cities demonstrate novel and groundbreaking low-carbon solutions in demonstration and lighthouse projects. However, as the historical, geographic, political, social and economic context of urban areas vary greatly, it is not always easy to repeat the solution in another city or even district. It is therefore important to look for the opportunities to scale up or repeat successful pilots. The purpose of this paper is to explore common trends in technologies and replication strategies for positive energy buildings or districts in smart city projects, based on the practical experience from a case study in Leipzig—one of the lighthouse cities in the project SPARCS. One of the key findings the paper has proven is the necessity of a profound replication modelling to deepen the understanding of upscaling processes. Three models analyzed in this article are able to provide a multidimensional representation of the solution to be replicated.

Global warming is one of our time’s most pressing issues and the energy industry is the leading cause. In the current Swedish electricity systems, individual consumers hold little to no power as the system is inherently centralized, with large incumbent actors. The Swedish electricity grid is prognosticated to encounter a troublesome situation with grid capacity as society enjoys and evergrowing electrification. The climate issueshave however given renewable energy a more predominant role in the Swedish energy sector. Through the directives of the European Union’s Clean Energy Package, each member state now has to enact laws enabling for individuals to cooperatively engage in selfproduction of energy as a joint entity, which in turn enables for new niche technologies to become market actors. Energy communities is such an entity with a promising outlook to become both a considerable market actor, and an actor that can help alleviate grid tensions. The purpose of this study is to: 1) investigate how the internal business model for energy communities could be constructed in order to maximize societal outreach and promote the creation of new energy communities, and 2) to investigate how the business models could be constructed in order to coexist with the incumbent structures, while contributing to the developments in the sociotechnical regime. The study utilizes an abductive approach through the form of a single case study and qualitative data collection methods. The results are presented and analyzed using the business model canvas framework and its potential is analyzed through the MultiLevel Perspective. The prospects of energy communities in Sweden using photovoltaic (PV) production units are overall positive. The value propositions that lie at the core of the proposed business model are constituted of environmental benefits, autarky, social values and economic costs savings. The most prosperous developmental path for energy communities in order to in the future be recognized in the sociotechnical regime is through a relationship characterized by cooperation with the incumbent structures. / Global uppvärming är en av vår tids största problem, och energiindustrin är den största bidgrande faktorn. I det nuvarande energisystemet har individen lite kontroll, eftersom systemet är till hög grad centraliserat med stora aktörer. Effektbrist och kapacitetsbrist är växande problem i det svenska elnätet, vilket späds på av ökad elektrifiering. Klimatförändringarna har dock givits en större roll i den svenska energisektorn. Genom ett direktiv på EU nivå, Ren Energi paketet, kan nu varje medlemsstat etablera lagar för hur individer kan engagera sig och samarbeta i elproduktion för att själva bli marknadsaktörer. Ett samlingsnamn för sådana aktörer är energigemenskaper. Energigemenskaper kan bidra till att motverka både klimatkrisen men också problemen i elnäten. Syftet med denna studie är att: 1) undersöka hur affärsmodellen för energigemenskaper kan utformas så att man maximerar samhällsspridning och promoterar skapandet av nya energisamhällen, och 2) undersöka hur affärsmodellen can konstrueras så att de kan samexistera med nuvarande aktörer i energisystemet och dessutom utveckla det vidare. Denna studie har ett abduktivt tillvägagångssätt, genom en fallstudie med kvalitativ datainsamling. Resultaten presenteras och analyseras med business model canvas och dess potential undersöks med hjälp av MultiLevel Perspective ramverket. Utsikterna för energigemenskaperna, med fokus på solcellsproduktion, är överlag goda. Energigemenskapens affärsmodells främsta värderbjudanden var klimatmedvetenhet, autarki, sociala attribut och kostnadsbesparingar. Den mest lovande utvecklingsbanan för energigemenskaper inkluderar karaktäriseras av inkludering och samarbeta med de stora och nuvarande aktörerna i energisystemet.

This thesis undertakes a thorough exploration of business models for energy communities, specifically tailored to the unique requirements of the Swedish energy sector. Its objective is to identify and evaluate global business models for energy communities, focusing on their applicability within Sweden's regulatory, market, and socio-cultural contexts. Utilizing the Business Model Canvas as an analytical framework, the study initially identifies twelve distinct business model archetypes, ranging from community-based energy generation to models grounded in circular economy principles. Subsequently, it assesses their viability within Sweden's innovative and sustainability-focused energy landscape. The research is based on a qualitative methodology, incorporating a systematic literature review and comparative analysis to understand the complex dynamics of energy communities. By examining the structure of the Swedish energy system, the study pinpoints key factors influencing the success of energy- community models in Sweden, including regulatory frameworks, technological infrastructure, economic and financial viability, community engagement, and environmental sustainability. The findings emphasize six business models that closely align with Swedish values and objectives, highlighting the significance of community involvement, sustainability, and innovation in transforming Sweden's energy sector. These models include community-based energy generation, residential energy self-consumption, shared community energy generation, electric mobility cooperatives, collective financial initiatives, and circular economy-based approaches. In conclusion, the thesis proposes an Integrated Sustainable Energy Community Model (ISECM) as a comprehensive futuristic energy community model to guide Sweden's transition towards a more decentralized, participative, and sustainable energy future. This model integrates sustainable energy production, smart urban mobility, resource recovery, and digital integration. Further recommending strategic initiatives for implementation such as developing community platforms, forging strategic partnerships, and establishing environmental and social metrics. The research contributes to both academic and practical discussions on sustainable energy transitions, offering a strategic framework for leveraging community-based models to achieve Sweden's environmental and energy goals. It calls for active engagement from government, industry, academia, and communities to unlock the potential of innovative business models in advancing Sweden's energy sustainability agenda. / Denna avhandling genomför en omfattande utforskning av affärsmodeller för energigemenskaper, särskilt anpassade till de unika kraven i den svenska energisektorn. Syftet är att identifiera och utvärdera globala affärsmodeller för energigemenskaper med fokus på deras tillämplighet inom Sveriges regelverk, marknadsdynamik och sociokulturella sammanhang. Med hjälp av Business Model Canvas som analytiskt ramverk kartlägger studien tolv distinkta affärsmodellsarketyper, från gemenskapsbaserad energiproduktion till modeller baserade på cirkulär ekonomi, och bedömer deras livskraft i Sveriges innovativa och hållbarhetsinriktade energilandskap. Forskningen är grundad i en kvalitativ metodik, inkluderande en systematisk litteraturgenomgång och jämförande analys för att förstå de mångfacetterade dynamikerna inom energigemenskaper. Genom att utforska strukturen i det svenska energisystemet identifierar studien nyckelfaktorer som påverkar framgången för modeller av energigemenskaper i Sverige, inklusive regelverk, teknologisk infrastruktur, ekonomisk och finansiell livskraft, gemenskapsengagemang och miljömässig hållbarhet. Resultaten belyser sex affärsmodeller som ligger i linje med svenska värderingar och mål, och betonar vikten av gemenskapsinvolvering, hållbarhet och innovation i omvandlingen av Sveriges energisektor. Dessa modeller inkluderar gemenskapsbaserad energiproduktion, självkonsumtion av energi i bostäder, delad gemenskapsenergiproduktion, kooperativ för elektrisk mobilitet, kollektiva finansiella initiativoch modeller baserade på cirkulär ekonomi. Som avslutning föreslår avhandlingen en Integrerad Hållbar Energi Gemenskaps Modell (ISEGM) som ett holistiskt framtida energigemenskap för att vägleda Sveriges övergång mot en mer decentraliserad, deltagande och hållbar energiframtid. Denna modell inkluderar hållbar energiproduktion, smart stadsrörlighet, återvinning av resurser och digital integration. Som vidare rekommenderar strategiska initiativ för implementering, såsom utveckling av gemenskapsplattformar, skapande av strategiska partnerskap och etablering av miljö- och sociala mätvärden. Forskningen bidrar till akademiska och praktiska diskussioner om hållbara energiövergångar, och erbjuder ett strategiskt ramverk för att utnyttja gemenskapsbaserade modeller för att uppnå Sveriges miljö- och energimål. Den uppmanar till aktivt engagemang från regeringen, industrin, akademin och gemenskaper för att förverkliga potentialen i innovativa affärsmodeller för att främja Sveriges hållbarhetsagenda inom energi.