Renewable energy lies in the center of the debate on climate change. In order to achieve the energy transition, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to terminate our reliance on fossil fuels, wind energy is one of the world’s biggest bets. However, wind power plants are frequently contested at the local level, where they create discussions regarding fairness as benefits and burdens seem not always to be equally distributed. To better understand ‘energy justice’ in the era of renewable energy, our research qualitatively explores the perceptions of relevant involved stakeholders around wind energy projects in three locations in Germany and Sweden. Our findings add evidence and confirm many previous implications from the growing literature of public acceptance and energy justice. In addition, we highlight the importance of distributive, procedural and recognitional justice, as well as paradoxes arising from wind energy projects such as envy, the transformation of nature and the interpretation of citizens’ duties. The study furthermore sustains the faced complexities on the path towards an energy-just world.

Energy access has gained a lot of attention following the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), which under Goal 7 emphasizes the access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. Energy is central in addressing the major global challenges of the 21st century, including poverty, climate change, famine to mention but a few; and yet a large number of people especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) still lack access to modern energy, such as electricity, natural gas and liquefied natural gas (LNG) for lighting and cooking respectively. Initiatives have been taken at an international, regional and national level to address the issue of energy access, however, the problem continues to escalate in SSA. SSA countries have common energy challenges which could be tackled with common efforts through regional cooperation. Achieving cooperative outcomes can be difficult among countries on a bilateral basis. In this regard, the employment of a broader multi-country framework which can be utilized through the existing regional organizations and international organizations might be expected to lead to greater cooperation in the energy sector. This possibility is the springboard for the present research. In this thesis, I identify the key regional energy cooperative mechanisms employed by SSA regional organizations and ask whether these are efficient for tackling the challenge of energy access. The primary contribution of this work is to establish and propose a new method which could be employed by SSA regional bodies in both regulatory and infrastructural energy cooperative mechanisms to ensure that regional efforts are enhanced at the national level to tackle energy access and climate change challenges. I also propose a new definition of energy access which could be employed by regional and international organizations. This is much more than a matter of improving stipulative definitions: it is intended to contribute positively to an ongoing debate on the meaning of energy access and what such access entails.

There is need for increased production of electricity from renewable energy technologies. The transition to a low-carbon economy, whilst achieving energy security and meeting the Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7) is an ongoing challenge for many countries. Local communities instituting an energy co-operative model may be instrumental to reducing greenhouse gas emissions to attain the 2030 goal. Renewable energy co-operatives (RECs) are one approach that can contribute to environmentally and socially equitable energy transitions in order to meet the SDG7. This thesis examines the factors that affect the success of RECs within Ontario to better discern how RECs are set up and how government policy affects their development. The main research question of this study is “How can Ontario’s renewable energy co-ops grow, experience long-term viability, be updated or expanded?” This thesis argues that the quest towards energy transition, a low-carbon economy and to achieve both the federal and provincial targets by 2030 should take on a multi-stakeholders approach. In theory, this should reflect community desires, goals and energy equity since a community should have its own supported role in energy generation towards the whole of Ontario. With the absence of provincial support from the removal of the Feed-In Tariff (FIT) program in 2017, it is now imperative that municipal governments become involved in REC developments within their community. The methodological approach of this thesis uses a combination of the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) and sustainability analyses in order to interpret the data collected from semi-structured interviews with co-ops and policymakers as well as their websites and reports. This study examines the support structures and barriers for the growth of RECs in Ontario and how their growth can contribute to the SDG7. Through document review and interviews with representatives from the co-ops, I discovered that barriers include unstable government policy, inadequate funding, and a lack of support from financial institutions due to the smaller size of the projects developed by power co-ops. Comparisons with REC policy and progress in European countries show Ontario can do more to support RECs. This thesis concludes that one of the many available options for Ontario to contribute substantially to the transition to a low-carbon-economy is through applying the Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change and the SDG7 by supporting citizen-led initiatives like RECs and to encourage large financial institutions to invest in their communities.

A central challenge of the twenty-first century is to transition to a low-carbon energy system to reduce the risks of climate change. For Pima County, Arizona, where electricity accounts for the majority of greenhouse gas emissions, this requires rapid deployment of grid-tied renewable energy resources. In light of this challenge, photovoltaic solar has emerged as an important solution, providing the top source of new US electric generating capacity installed in 2016. However, there is still no consensus about the optimal scale for solar (centralized power plants, or small, decentralized systems) and the socio-economic implications for low income households. This thesis explores the implications of rooftop solar for energy justice through empirical research about a southern Arizona electric utility rate case. Utilities argue that existing rate structures shift costs from solar owners to lower-income ratepayers, while critics say the utility's proposed rate changes are unjust and that rooftop solar benefits all ratepayers. Drawing on my empirical data and an urban political ecology (UPE) approach, I analyze competing narratives that speak to three types of justice: distributive, procedural, and recognition. While dominant justice claims revolve around the distribution of costs through rates, competing narratives emphasize procedural and recognition (in)justice. Focusing on political economy, power relations, and the materiality of the grid, I reframe the utility’s cost shift argument as a strategic narrative and explain why this justice claim is ultimately validated. I propose that UPE can further an energy justice analysis by understanding procedural and recognition injustice as systemic products of rate of return regulation and the material configuration of the electric grid.

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Like many other European cities, Malmö has set ambitious goals to become Sweden’s first carbon-neutral city by 2030. This objective is aligned with several public entities such as the Öresund Region, the Swedish Energy Agency, the European Union, and the UN within the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Urban Development. However, statistics show that this goal is very difficult, if not, impossible to reach, as the city has achieved 32% of renewable energy by the end of 2020. Furthermore, the region of Skåne is currently facing problems regarding electricity shortage due to the lack of production in the region and network capacity in the national grid. This study identifies at least two major causes to explain why the energy transition in the city of Malmö does not see the light at the end of the tunnel. First, there is a dominant political narrative in Sweden that favors centralized and intensive capital solutions that may result in the lock-in of alternatives that aim for a more decentralized energy system. Second, the high trust in technological innovation to solve societal challenges has reduced Social Innovation (SI) as a tool that only complements technological advances (e.g., offshore wind turbines and smart grids). Therefore, this mainstream eliminates the capacity of Social Innovation in the Energy Sector (SIE) as an opportunity to contest dominant structures and make transformative changes at the institutional level within the energy system. Within this context, regime actors such as Large-scale Energy Companies (LECs) have an important role in impeding but possibly also enabling SIE and facilitating the sustainable and just energy transition in Sweden. Drawing on the Transformative Social Innovation-framework, this thesis analyzes three SIE-initiatives developed by E.ON Group in collaboration with other actors. An embedded-case study approach and mixed methods (mapping, document review, semi-structured interviews, and thematic and discourse analysis) were the basis of this research to understand the transformative potential of each initiative. The results of the study conclude that LECs participate actively in the development of SIE. It shows that projects like SWITCH/CoordiNET change internal social relations but not institutional relations, while others such as Sege Park and Smart Cities Accelerator+ have big potential of transformative change and may replace and alter dominant informal and formal institutions. It also demonstrates how E.ON and the City of Malmö are challenging the dominant political narrative in Sweden. Building on the latter empirical findings, this thesis suggests recommendations for city actors (public sector, businesses, organizations, and individuals) to create alliances and reach the goal of producing 100% renewable energy while aiming for a more sustainable and just energy system in the city of Malmö.

The necessity of increasing the generation of renewable energy is extensively recognized, however its expansion requires social and political acceptance. Wind power is seen as a promising and vital source of energy, and with new technology, it is expected to grow significantly. However, empirical experience indicates that the number of decisions to apporve wind power applications has declined, and resistance is expected to be the cause. The aim of this research study is to analyze and evaluate to what extent economic compensation or economic incentives could influence social acceptance of wind power in Sweden through the lens of the theoretical framework of energy justice. The study uses a mixed method approach while examining the principles of distributional and procedural justice. The quantitative method using surveys and a qualitative method using semi-structured interviews provided the base for the outcomes. The results demonstrate that communities often resist wind power projects, and compensation is likley to influence acceptance of wind power and is thus seen as vastly important and a requirement for future development. The injustice of current compensation systems and low involvement in the decision-making process among local residents are further considered issues for the development of wind power. This further indicates attention to energy justice using distributional and procedural justice as a framework to integarte wind power into a social context to avoid unfairness between the burden and benefits of those affected by wind power.

Climate finance is becoming an increasingly important aspect of climate change action, and massive sums are estimated to be required to mitigate further increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Mitigation projects supported by climate finance further have the possibility to increase access to modern energy services in countries where these are lacking. Focusing on the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and the fund’s climate finance projects committed to enhancing energy access, this study investigates the complexities related to climate finance projects and what possible justice implications climate finance might result in. The area of focus in the study is the African continent, and the aspect of energy justice, specifically energy access equity. The study uses qualitative document analysis and reflexive thematic analysis along with an energy justice lens and framework, to analyse aspects of energy justice in six approved funding proposals of the GFCs energy generation and access portfolio. The results reveal three major overarching themes of a strong focus on private sector enhancement, where risk management and return on investments are common patterns in the approved funding proposals, site selection criteria that focus on financial viability and market potential, and a strong focus on finding a balance between affordability and profits. Resulting from this is likely to be an enhancement of energy access for the middle and low-income population in Africa, however, the results of the study show that energy justice implications resulting from the planned projects, particularly in terms of energy access equity are likely to arise. The themes found in the documents are likely to result in both distributive and recognition justice implications specifically affecting individuals, households and social groups living in extreme poverty or in areas deemed as undesirable for investments. It further highlights the need to consider already marginalised groups in society and not only financial viability of projects to attract private sector involvement. The study concludes that while private finance is positive in terms of climate finance, a balance between private and public finance is of importance, and increased focus must be put on the fairness and equity of energy access projects supported by climate finance from the Green Climate Fund.

The Nenets, an indigenous peoples in the North of Russia, are increasingly being affected by the gas industry. The increasing prioritisation of extractive industries, the status of the Arctic as a bellwether and the threatened situation of indigenous people in Russia has drawn greater attention to this field of study. One resulting issue concerns the relationship between the Nenets and the gas industry, especially regarding the traditional activity of the Nenets; reindeer pastoralism. The implications of this relationship remains little chronicled and understood, with only piecemeal attempts to consider the wider industry-indigenous pastoralism association. This thesis investigates this issue, with particular reference to the framework of energy justice and the Bovanenkovo gas field on the Yamal Peninsula. Energy justice is a relatively new theoretical framework that probes how justicial extractive industries are, whilst Bovanenkovo is a large and expanding gas field on the traditional territory of the Nenets. A systematic literature review has been employed as this thesis’ methodology, which has detailed the various frames by which the relationship on Yamal has been interpreted around the lens of energy justice. Overall, this review has revealed the presence of injustices on Yamal with distinct distributional, procedural and recognition injustices affecting reindeer pastoralism. The implicit nature by which energy justice is featured within the corpus’ authorship as well as the limited reference to the concept of justice are also demonstrated. A number of alternative frames characterising the relationship have also been elucidated, all of which contribute further to frames of injustice but also indicate remediation. A conclusion is drawn that the situation on Yamal remains complex with many different stakeholders, and that the indigenous Nenets remain ever-affected by resource extractive industries.

Environmental and socio-economic crises are creating compelling needs for radical social change. This project investigated the options and barriers for three Scottish rural communities (Fintry, Killin and Kinlochleven) to become sustainable and thrive in a future resource-constrained world. A unique, holistic and mixed methods approach was used to assess baseline sustainability, envision and model futures and develop possible options for sustainability. Central to this investigation was the development of a strong and holistic model of a sustainable community: the sustainable community design (SCD). This framework shaped the assessment of each community’s baseline sustainability. Sustainability was measured for the ten aspects of the SCD using a scorecard approach with a basket of indicators populated by primary data (collected in a household survey) and secondary data (national statistics). Sustainable consumption was analysed using the Resources and Energy Analysis Programme (REAP) to generate each community’s ecological footprint (EF) and results were compared to current estimates of per capita world biocapacity to gauge sustainability. Even the most sustainable community was only sustainable in three out of ten of the SCD’s aspects and this community had the highest EF. Although the most deprived community had the lowest EF, it was unsustainable in all ten SCD aspects. The results reflected the heterogeneity of rural communities and complexity of sustainability measurement. The SCD scorecard approach for sustainability measurement was shown to be sensitive and robust and can be applied to rural communities across Scotland. Future visions were created in focus groups, in which participants were asked to envision what their community would need to thrive in 2030 under the scenario of peak oil and a low carbon economy. Vision ideas and examples of best practice and technological innovation were used to create narrative scenarios for modelling transport, food and energy futures. The scenarios’ EFs were calculated in REAP for three discrete levels of change: a marginal change, a step change and radical transformation. The results suggested that radical transformation is required for communities to become sustainable. Key features are likely to be re-localised and highly co-operative societies, which utilise technological innovations (such as electric cars powered by renewable energy) and share resources to maximise opportunities for living in rural areas. A community’s transformation is likely to be bespoke and require local control, requiring changes to governance and supportive policy. Key barriers identified were availability of affordable technological innovations, energy injustice, power to achieve self-determination, community governance, property rights and sustainability literacy. A process model, incorporating the SCD scorecard approach, was proposed for furthering sustainable community development and research. In taking an interdisciplinary and mixed methods approach, this study has pioneered a novel approach to the holistic enquiry of the options for creating sustainable rural communities.