Higher-order regulatory interactions between enhancer elements and target gene promoters have been implicated in the coordination and regulation of transcription in a spatio-temporal manner. Within development, the graded activity of enhancers controls transcriptional programs necessary to establish cell fates and tissue patterning. How enhancer promoter interactions form and dynamically change throughout development remains largely unknown. The aim of this thesis is to further characterise BMP enhancers during development. Using ChIP data, an enrichment of architectural binding proteins (ABPs) with enhancers regulated by the BMP pathway was identified. Analysis of chromatin signatures revealed a correlation with the active histone marks, H3K27ac and H3K36me3, over BMP enhancers enriched for the ABP BEAF32. BEAF32 mutants show disrupted expression of BMP target genes and altered tissue fates defined by the BMP pathway. Consequently, the role of BEAF32 genome-wide was considered, revealing interactions with factors associated with enhancers and promoters, in addition to a correlation with RNA Polymerase II (RNAPII) pausing at promoter regions. This suggests a possible role for BEAF32 in bridging enhancer promoter interactions and releasing paused RNAPII. Based on the prevalence of BEAF32 at some enhancer sites and interaction with CBP, eRNAs were identified within the Drosophila embryo, utilising available GRO-seq data and GroHMM. eRNA expression correlates to accessible enhancer states regardless of chromatin composition, with transcribed enhancers revealing interactions with active promoters, supporting correlations to transcriptional activation. Chromatin architecture of BMP targets were lastly considered using Capture-C against BMP regulated promoters, revealing multiple regulatory interactions including contacts with enhancers regulated along the Dorso-ventral (DV) axis and additional BMP promoters, with dynamic interactions between enhancers and promoters. Overall the presented data suggest that BMP promoters are dynamically regulated by distal enhancers, with a plausible role for BEAF32 in mediating enhancer promoter interactions, to co-ordinate transcription programs used to pattern dorsal tissues in the Drosophila embryo.

Transcriptional enhancers represent the primary basis for differential gene expression. These elements regulate cell type specificity, development, and evolution, with many human diseases resulting from altered enhancer activity. To date, a key gap in our knowledge is how enhancers select specific promoters for activation. To fill this gap, in this thesis, I first developed an Integrated Method for Predicting Enhancer Targets (IM-PET). Leveraging abundant “omics” data, I devised and characterized multiple genomic features for distinguishing true enhancer-promoter (EP) pairs from non-interacting pairs. I integrated these features into a probabilistic predictor for EP interactions. Multiple validation experiments demonstrated a significant improvement over extent state-of-the-art approaches. Systematic analyses of EP interactions across twelve human cell types reveals global features of EP interactions. Second, we used a well-established viral infection model to map the dynamic changes of enhancers and super-enhancers during the CD8+ T cell responses. Our analysis illustrated the complexity and dynamics of the underlying EP interactome during cell differentiation. Taking advantage of the predicted EP interactions, we constructed stage-specific transcriptional regulatory networks, which is critical for understanding the regulatory mechanism during CD8+ T cell differentiation. Third, recent progress in mapping technologies for chromatin interactions has led to a rapid increase in this type of interaction data. However, there is a lack of a comprehensive depository for chromatin interactions identified by all major technologies. To address this problem, we have developed the 4DGenome database through comprehensive literature curation of experimentally derived interactions. We envision a wide range of investigations will benefit from this carefully curated database.

Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) development is accompanied by dynamic changes in the transcriptional program. How the corresponding transcriptional programs are related to the epigenetic mechanism is poorly understood. To fill this gap, we first profiled the transcriptomes and epigenomes using RNA-Seq and ChIP-Seq for five key developmental stages of HSC emergence in the mouse embryo. Using epigenetic markers, we identified novel 12,000~17,000 enhancers for each developmental stage. We applied a computational tool to link those enhancers to their target genes. Systematical analysis of enhancer-promoter (EP) pairs using network-based strategy reveals multiple novel key transcription factors for early specification of HSC in the mouse embryo. Second, we compared the 3D genome organization, epigenomes, and transcriptome of fetal and adult HSCs in the mouse. We found that higher-order genome structures are largely conserved between fetal and adult HSCs, including chromosomal compartments and topologically associating domains (TADs). However, chromatin interactions within TADs exhibit substantial differences. We found that promoters within 23% (242/1039) of TADs undergo interaction changes. Transcription factor motif analysis of HSC-specific enhancer-promoter loops suggests a role of KLF1 in mediating condition-specific enhancer looping and regulation of genes involved in cell cycle. Our result provides a comprehensive view of the differences in 3D genome organization, epigenome, and transcriptome between fetal and adult HSCs.

Together with the advancements in animal cloning, the ability to efficiently target specific genes in somatic cells would greatly enhance several areas of research. While it has been possible for quite some time to target specific genes in the germ cells of mice, the advancements in somatic cell gene targeting has been slowed for two main reasons. First, the finite lifespan of somatic cells, due mainly to the inability of the somatic cells to regenerate or maintain their telomeres, poses a major problem given the lengthy selection process needed to identify a targeting event. The second problem is the overall inefficiency of homologous recombination. A double strand break or introduction of foreign DNA into a cell can be processed either through the homologous recombination or non-homologous end joining pathways. Of these two, non-homologous end joining is dominant in somatic cells. A two plasmid recombination system was used to study the effects of the manipulation of several non-homologous end joining and homologous recombination pathway molecules on the rates of homologous recombination in porcine fetal fibroblasts. In addition, the effect of telomerase expression, cell synchrony, and DNA nuclear delivery was examined. Results indicate a strong positive relationship between inactivation of p53, cell synchronization, and efficient DNA nuclear delivery in enhancing the rate of homologous recombination. These findings were then applied to an actual locus in the pig, the α1,3 galactosyltransferase gene. Results from these transfections are compared to published accounts of successful targeting at this locus and possibilities for the differences found are discussed.

Les chromodomaines sont présents dans de nombreux régulateurs de la structure chromatinienne. Ils sont très conservés et reconnaissent spécifiquement certaines lysines méthylées sur les histones. Chez la drosophile, l'Enhancer de Trithorax et Polycomb Corto, impliqué dans la répression et dans l'activation transcriptionnelle de nombreux gènes, contient un chromodomaine (CortoCD). La surexpression de CortoCD dans des drosophiles transgéniques montre que c'est un module d'adressage à la chromatine. L'identification par spectrométrie de masse des polypeptides retenus par CortoCD in vitro révèle qu'ils correspondent à des protéines ribosomiques nucléaires (RPs). Je me suis concentrée sur l'une d'entre elle, RPL12, car les homologues de cette dernière dans d'autres espèces possèdent de nombreux résidus lysines méthylés. J'ai montré que CortoCD reconnaît spécifiquement la lysine 3 de RPL12 triméthylée (RPL12K3me3). De plus, Corto et RPL12 co-localisent avec des marques épigénétiques activatrices sur les chromosomes polytènes. L'analyse par ChIP (immunoprécipitation de la chromatine), de deux cibles transcriptionnelles de Corto et RPL12, révèle que ces deux protéines sont localisées dans le corps des gènes et ne sont pas enrichies sur les promoteurs, suggèrant un rôle dans l'élongation de la transcription. Des analyses transcriptomiques (RNAseq) montrent que Corto et RPL12 régulent majoritairement des gènes impliqués dans la biogenèse des ribosomes. Nos résultats mettent en évidence pour la première fois une coopération entre une protéine ribosomique et un facteur de maintien de la mémoire épigénétique dans la régulation transcriptionnelle. Les chromodomaines sont présents dans de nombreux régulateurs de la structure chromatinienne. Ils sont très conservés et reconnaissent spécifiquement certaines lysines méthylées sur les histones. Chez la drosophile, l'Enhancer de Trithorax et Polycomb Corto, impliqué dans la répression et dans l'activation transcriptionnelle de nombreux gènes, contient un chromodomaine (CortoCD). La surexpression de CortoCD dans des drosophiles transgéniques montre que c'est un module d'adressage à la chromatine. L'identification par spectrométrie de masse des polypeptides retenus par CortoCD in vitro révèle qu'ils correspondent à des protéines ribosomiques nucléaires (RPs). Je me suis concentrée sur l'une d'entre elle, RPL12, car les homologues de cette dernière dans d'autres espèces possèdent de nombreux résidus lysines méthylés. J'ai montré que CortoCD reconnaît spécifiquement la lysine 3 de RPL12 triméthylée (RPL12K3me3). De plus, Corto et RPL12 co-localisent avec des marques épigénétiques activatrices sur les chromosomes polytènes. L'analyse par ChIP (immunoprécipitation de la chromatine), de deux cibles transcriptionnelles de Corto et RPL12, révèle que ces deux protéines sont localisées dans le corps des gènes et ne sont pas enrichies sur les promoteurs, suggèrant un rôle dans l'élongation de la transcription. Des analyses transcriptomiques (RNAseq) montrent que Corto et RPL12 régulent majoritairement des gènes impliqués dans la biogenèse des ribosomes. Nos résultats mettent en évidence pour la première fois une coopération entre une protéine ribosomique et un facteur de maintien de la mémoire épigénétique dans la régulation transcriptionnelle.

Due to the water pollution problems created by MTBE, significant research was focused on the production of alternative oxygenates, such as ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), tert-amyl-methyl-ether (TAME) and tert-amyl-ethyl-ether (TAEE) as octane enhancing gasoline blending components. These oxygenates are expected to improve the burning characteristics of gasoline and reduce exhaust emissions of CO and hydrocarbons. Generally, macroreticular acidic resin catalysts (Amberlyst-15) are used for the etherification reactions between C5 iso-olefins (2M1B/2M2B) and alcohols (ethanol/methanol). But in recent years, heteropoly acid compounds are being used in the production of tert-ethers to replace those macroreticular acidic resin catalysts. HPAs are known to be active catalysts for many of homogeneous and heterogeneous acid catalyzed reactions.These compounds have high acidity, high catalytic activity but they are highly soluble in polar solvents such as water,alcohol when they are used in bulk form. In this research, applicability of bulk heteropoly acid (HPA) and its supported form, to the gas-phase etherification reaction of iso-olefin (2-methyl- 2-butene) with ethyl alcohol in a continuous differential reactor was investigated. The heteropoly acid (H3PW12O40.xH2O) was supported on activated carbon, at two different loading levels, by aqueous impregnation technique. After catalyst characterization, kinetic experiments were done in a temperature range between 80&deg / C-97&deg / C with a feed concentration of 30 vol.%2M2B+70 vol.% ethanol. Supported HPA catalysts yielded lower conversion and rate of reaction than the bulk HPA. After that, to make a comparison, same experiments have been carried out with Amberlyst-15 and a different HPA (H3PMo12O40.xH2O) at 90oC. The results showed that, at this temperature, bulk tungstophosphoric acid (H3PW12O40.xH2O) was highly active among the other catalysts. Moreover, the deactivation of bulk and supported HPA were investigated and found that partial deactivation occurred when they were reused, without any treatment. In the final part of the study, the activity of alcohol-treated supported HPA catalyst and formation of side products, dimethyl or diethyl ether, at 90&deg / C were investigated. When the supported catalyst was treated with alcohol, before utilizing in the experiments, lower conversion was obtained with respect to the conversion value obtained in the presence of fresh catalyst. The studies done on the formation of side product showed that, no side product was formed at this working temperature.

No description available.

The epigenetic mechanisms that connect hormone signaling to chromatin remain largely unknown. Here we show that LSD1/KDM1A is a critical glucocorticoid receptor (GR) coactivator and report a previously unexplored mechanism where LSD1 activates gene transcription through H3K4me2 demethylation. We demonstrate that direct interaction of GR with LSD1 primarily inhibit its activity against H3K4me1 in vitro. While this interaction enables GR to recruit LSD1 in vivo and allows loss of H3K4me2, it impedes further demethylation. Thus resulting in conversion of H3K4me2 to H3K4me1 at enhancers and promotes H3K27 acetylation and gene activation. We also find that H3K4me2 is an early enhancer mark predicting GR and LSD1 recruitment. These findings differ from the reported mechanism for ER and AR-mediated gene activation, providing a novel mechanism for LSD1 coactivator function as well as shed light on the role of H3K4me2 and enhancers in hormone-mediated gene regulation. In addition we present evidence supporting never before characterized H3K79me3 demethylase activity by members of the JMJD2 family of proteins.

TNF is an inflammatory cytokine that plays a critical role in the acute phase response to infection, and its dysregulation has been implicated in the pathology of several inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. TNF gene expression is regulated in a cell type- and inducer-specific manner that involves chromatin alterations at both the TNF promoter and distal DNase I hypersensitive (DH) sites within the TNF/LT locus. While the mechanisms underlying TNF gene activation in monocytes/macrophages and T cells have been studied intensively, the mechanisms of enhanced, repressed, and restored TNF gene expression in the context of classical macrophage activation and endotoxin tolerance remain largely unknown. We set out to understand how TNF gene expression is modulated during these biological processes by characterizing the chromatin environment of the TNF/LT locus.

Development of the central nervous system requires the precise coordination of intrinsic genetic programs to instruct cell fate, synaptic connectivity and function. The MEF2 family of transcription factors (TFs) plays many essential roles in neural development; however, the mechanisms of gene regulation by MEF2 in neurons remain unclear. This dissertation focuses on the molecular mechanisms by which MEF2 binds to the genome, activates enhancers, and regulates gene expression within the developing nervous system. We find that one MEF2 family member in particular, MEF2D, is an essential regulator of the development and function of retinal photoreceptors, the primary sensory neurons responsible for vision. Despite being expressed broadly across many tissues, in the retina MEF2D binds to retina-specific enhancers and regulates photoreceptor-specific transcripts, including critical retinal disease genes. Functional genome-wide analyses demonstrate that MEF2D achieves tissue-specific binding and action through cooperation with a retina-specific TF, CRX. CRX recruits MEF2D away from canonical MEF2 binding sites by promoting MEF2D binding to retina-specific enhancers that lack a strong consensus MEF2 binding sequence. MEF2D and CRX then synergistically co-activate these enhancers to regulate a cohort of genes critical for normal photoreceptor development. These findings demonstrate that MEF2D, a broadly expressed TF, contributes to retina-specific gene expression in photoreceptor development by binding to and activating tissue-specific enhancers cooperatively with CRX, a tissue-specific co-factor. A major unresolved feature of MEF2D function in the retina is that the number of MEF2D binding sites significantly exceeds the number of genes that are dependent on MEF2D for expression. We investigated causes of this discrepancy in an unbiased manner by characterizing the activity of MEF2D-bound enhancers genome-wide. We find that many MEF2D-bound enhancers are inactive. Furthermore, less than half of active MEF2D-bound enhancers require MEF2D for activity, suggesting that significant redundancies exist for TF function within enhancers. These findings demonstrate that observed TF binding significantly overestimates direct TF regulation of gene expression. Taken together, our results suggest that the broadly expressed TF MEF2D achieves tissue specificity through competitive recruitment to enhancers by tissue-specific TFs and activates a small subset of enhancers to regulate genes.