Report (M.S.)--Michigan Technological University, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the World Wide Web.

<p> Long-term precipitation, temperature, and streamflow records were used to compare changes in precipitation and potential evapotranspiration to changes in runoff within 25 stream basins. Historical changes in the region appear to be more consistent with complex transient shifts in seasonal climatic conditions than with gradual climate change. Annual peak streamflow data were divided into two populations, snowmelt/spring and summer/fall, to test the hypotheses that, because of changes in precipitation regimes, the odds of summer/fall peaks have increased and, because of temperature changes, snowmelt/spring peaks happen earlier. The odds of summer/fall peaks occurring have increased across the study area. In northern portions of the study region, snowmelt/spring peaks are occurring earlier by 8.7 to 14.3 days. Tree-ring chronologies and historical precipitation data in a region around the Souris River Basin, were analyzed to model past long-term variations of precipitation. Results show that precipitation varies on multi-decadal time scales. </p><p> The Red River of the North drains much of eastern North Dakota and northwestern Minnesota and flows north into Manitoba, Canada, ultimately into Lake Winnipeg, so phosphorus transport is an International concern. Phosphorus changes over time were determined and phosphorus concentrations at the International border, when adjusted for variability in streamflow (flow-normalized), have generally increased from 1972-2012; however, most of that increase happened in the 1970s. Flux, the total amount of phosphorus transported, has increased dramatically in recent decades; however, when adjusted for streamflow variability (so that flux is from variation caused by the occurrence of high- or low-flow conditions), the flow-normalized flux has declined in recent years. This indicates that an important reason for increased flux is climatic &ndash; the wet conditions experienced since 1993. </p><p> These changes have implications for water interests, such as potential changes in lead-time for flood forecasting or changes in the operation of flood-control dams or wastewater treatment plants. Results suggest that the recent wet period may be a part of natural variability on a very long time scale and that this not only has implications for flood risk, but for nutrient export to Canada.</p>

NTO (3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one) is one of the new explosive compounds used in insensitive munitions (IM) and developed to replace traditional explosives, TNT and RDX. Data on NTO fate and transport is needed to determine its environmental behavior and potential for groundwater contamination. In this study, we measured how NTO in solution interacts with different types of soils and related soil properties to transport and fate behavior. We conducted a series of kinetic and equilibrium batch soil sorption experiments and saturated column transport studies under steady-state and transient conditions. NTO adsorbed very weakly to the studied soils. Adsorption coefficients (Kds) measured for NTO in a range of soils in batch experiments were less than 1 cm³ g⁻¹. There was a highly significant negative relationship between measured NTO adsorption coefficients and soil pH (P = 0.00011). In kinetic experiments, first order transformation rate estimates ranged between 0.0004 h⁻¹ and 0.0221 h⁻¹. There was a general agreement between batch and column-determined fate and transport parameters. However, transport studies showed an increase in the NTO transformation rate as a function of time, possibly indicating microbial growth.

Through examples of ecological or living systems this research project introduced selected systems concepts to a purposely-selected sample of environmental communicators within Banff National Park. Participants’ individual reflections and collective discussions of the systems concepts led them to develop an expanded understanding of what constitutes effective environmental communication. Subsequent changes occurred to the system within which the project took place, including changes to participants, between participants, between participants and their environment, and to the researcher. Research project design reflected the systems concepts being discussed and encouraged participants to freely construct their own experiences. Content analysis enabled examination of qualitative data collected through web-based questions and discussion. Conclusions support that a systems thinking approach can enhance understandings of effective environmental communication, including increasing awareness of looping processes such as feedback, promoting collective action and a sense of community, and developing understandings of connections between ecological systems and social systems.

Access to potable water has been on the forefront of the international agenda for almost three decades. The international community has been working together in developing potable water management programs and improving potable water access. This thesis examines how the nature of rural communities influences water usage and rural potable water projects in Nicaragua. Factors such as proximity to urban environments and exposure to nongovernmental organizations are demonstrated to play a role in shaping community expectations and satisfaction with potable water projects. The author proposes approaches for addressing urban influence focused on improving flexibility of project consultation processes, strengthening project monitoring, and enhancing the level of community knowledge with respect to available potable water systems. The author briefly explores how this case study is transferrable to other communities in developing countries.

This thesis considers perspectives on municipal greenhouse gas emission reductions. It is timely study as it is one point of entry to analyzing emissions and contemplates the degree of local responsibility, as well as the barriers and possible solutions to creating action. By using a case study approach, Strathcona County was examined in its real-life context to determine the outlook at the local scale. Attention to varying government action plans, as well as scientific research was examined to verify relevance of municipal action. Using survey and interview methods, perspectives from key decision makers were compared and contrasted. The results indicated that there is a concentration at the municipal level on actions that will directly or indirectly benefit climate change. A multi-governance angle, as well as institutionalizing the concept into the organization and community will create progress. Solutions focusing on land use planning, transportation and community energy are emerging. This study demonstrates the value of municipal action as an essential element to achieving long term, cost effective and successful reductions, and recognizes that it is a supplement rather than an alternative to provincial and national plans.

Wetlands in southern Africa can be considered a rarity, forming despite a regional negative water balance and a continental background of wide scale incision. These particular characteristics lead to southern African wetlands generally forming on drainage lines, where incision has been momentarily paused and water is locally abundant. The exact evolutionary history of valley bottom and floodplain wetlands is varied. However, their development follows four main themes; 1) those that evolve due to resistant lithologies outcropping on a drainage line and acting as local base levels, 2) those that occur on the coast, with current sea level preventing drainage line incision, 3) those that arise from a particular relationship with a trunk or tributary channel that blocks a drainage line with sediment, and finally, 4) those that occur in a region of dramatic loss of confinement, resulting in the formation of a wetland alluvial fan. Despite varied histories, all wetlands share a common thread, developing along a continuum from small and steep unchanneled valley bottom wetlands to large and flat floodplain wetlands. Incision in valley-bottom wetlands is controlled by a geomorphic slope threshold, whereby for a given wetland size, a particular slope may be considered stable. Wetlands exceeding the particular slope for their size are most likely already incised, or are vulnerable to incision in the near future. This thesis examines the general evolution of drainage line wetlands, followed by a detailed study of a large coastal floodplain, the Mfolozi River Floodplain, located on KwaZulu-Natal’s northern coastal plain. The Mfolozi Floodplain is one of South Africa’s largest at 19 000ha and is located just south of the world heritage site of Lake St. Lucia, with the St. Lucia and Mfolozi River mouths occasionally joining at the coast. Although once a mosaic of Cyperus papyrus and Phragmites australis permanent and seasonal wetland, approximately 60% of the floodplain has been reclaimed since the 1920’s for large-scale sugar cane cultivation. A smaller percentage is used for subsistence farming, while the remaining lower portion falls in the Greater St. Lucia Wetlands Park (which was renamed iSimangeliso Park in November 2007). The formation of the large coastal valley in which the Mfolozi Floodplain now sits was created during a period of incision during the last glacial maximum 18 000 BP when sea level was 120m below the current level. The lowered sea level resulted in regional river rejuvenation and valley down cutting. The Mfolozi River valley became deeply incised resulting in the formation of incised meanders upstream of the Lebombo Mountains. Below the mountains, less resistant lithologies of the Maputaland and Zululand Groups allowed the development of a wide coastal valley. Following the last glacial maximum, sea level rose, reaching its present level approximately 6000 BP. As sea level rose, coastal valleys were drowned and began to infill with sediments. Above the floodplain, the Mfolozi River follows a meandering course in an incised confined valley. Upon passing through the Lebombo Mountains, the valley widens considerably from 915 m to over 6 km in just 1.15 km. This rapid change from confinement to a broad floodplain setting results in a reduction of carrying capacity of the Mfolozi River, creating a node of large-scale deposition at the floodplain head in the form of an alluvial fan. Deposition in this region causes a local oversteepening of the valley’s longitudinal profile, with a gradient of 0.1%. Contrastingly, the mid- floodplain is almost flat, with a decrease in elevation of just 1 m over almost 6 km (0.02%). The lower floodplain, where gradient is completely controlled by sea level, has a steeper gradient of 0.05%. The reason for the rather drastic slope break in the mid floodplain is currently unknown, although it may be related to faulting in the underlying Tertiary aged Zululand Group, which is currently concealed by Quaternary deposits. In addition, tributary drainage lines that once flowed into the Mfolozi River have been blocked by long-term sediment accumulation on the floodplain. As a result, these drainage lines have become drowned and provide local conditions for the formation and accumulation of peat. Besides geological setting, hydrology is commonly recognized as being the other most important factor in valley evolution. Flow in the Mfolozi River has been characterized as highly variable relative to the rest of the globe. The Black Mfolozi has the lowest Coefficient of Variation (CV) at 61%, followed by the White Mfolozi at 69% and the Mfolozi River at 79%. In addition, catchment precipitation was shown to be variable, especially when compared to global values. As a result of variable rainfall and discharge, the Mfolozi River shows hysteresis in sediment concentration on an annual scale, and there is an indication that hysteresis may also occur on a longer time scale during wet and dry rainfall cycles. This however, needs to be confirmed with a longerterm data set. Variable discharge and sediment transport leads to different floodplain processes and dynamics than would be expected for a river of regular flow. Since flow is generally very low in the Mfolozi River, and is characterised by a series of extremely large outlier flood events, the persistence of flood features is likely to be large. In addition, it is likely that extreme flood events are the primary drivers of floodplain evolution and dynamics in such variable settings. The Mfolozi Floodplain wetland study throws light on floodplain process rates, and the forces behind floodplain dynamics in such hydrologically variable settings. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2008.

This thesis contributes towards improving corporate social and environmental reporting (CSR) in South Africa, by determining what about CSR would need to be and could be improved. The sources of information for this were twofold. A comprehensive literature review, besides providing the background to the study, determined what specific criticisms have been levied against existing CSR disclosure and CSR systems. This thesis argued that many of these limitations arise out of the many primarily rule-based systems in existence and use, and that CSR should rather be based on sound fundamental principles and a conceptual framework, and be an enforceable standard i.e. with legal backing to ensure compliance. The second source of information on possible areas of improvement was from the users and or the stakeholders. In Part I of the thesis, these users or stakeholders were surveyed to determine which areas of reporting were important, and which needed to be better reported. What was important was that significant expectation gaps were found in CSR specifically regarding reporting the impacts on employees, the public and consumers and the physical and biotic environment. This provided evidence for the need for improvements in actual reporting in these traditional CSR areas, and hence il, . justification for the work ofthis thesis. Having identified areas of weakness and potential improvement in current CSR, an analysis was required to be performed to determine how these areas could be better reported. An assessment would need to be made if in fact these areas could be measured (and hence reported), which was undertaken in Part 2 of the thesis. The thesis revealed the need for improved CSR, and a greater degree of accountability and transparency by business that improved CSR could provide. It was argued that reporting, other than financial, which includes CSR should be prepared using a conceptual framework of principles, similar to that used in financial reporting, and thus a principle-based approach to CSR should be used as opposed to a rule based one. It was noted that such a principle-based approach would address many of the qualitative criticisms levelled against CSR practices, and current rule based systems. Using a systems based approach, a framework of interactions and impacts caused by businesses on social and physical systems was developed, which was used as the basis for a suggested CSR model. The model was validated using a peer and expert review process, and by comparison to the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), which was used to represent international and South African best practice. However, it was noted that potential measurement difficulties would be encountered if the proposed model were used. It would also need to be determined what practical barriers would exist to implementingthese CSR models in business, which was the objective of Part 3 of this thesis. When the practical implementation of a comprehensive CSR system was evaluated in industry, both the proposed model and the GRI were considered. An important part ofthe measuring process was noted to be company risk assessment, often undertaken by the company's insurers. Where environmental impacts, health and safety, or other potential impacts (e.g. accidents or spills in the transport industry having significant impacts on other road users), were noted to be a significant risk, measurement systems and control procedures had been put in place by most companies. Perhaps the most significant part of risk, besides the potential loss in earning capacity, is potential litigation. Common law litigation would encourage companies to monitor and protect the health of their workers and consumers. Legislation e.g. National Environmental Management Act and Air Quality Act, would encourage companies to monitor their environmental impacts. Thus a combination of risk and legislation encourages monitoring and measurement. The findings of the third part of the thesis suggest that increased pressure should be placed on companies to become IS014001 certified as this would facilitate increased CSR reporting, however, this in itself is unlikely to occur unless increased pressure is placed on companies by (legal of customer). The author suggests that IS014001 certification would be more effective in ensuring environmental protection, than simple CSR disclosure. Significant challenges exist to the possible implementation of many of the key areas identified in the proposed CSR model (specifically where measurement problems exist), and no companies were found to be in a position to report on these aspects comprehensively. The findings of this thesis include that existing legislation and financial imperatives influenced measurement and recording of certain impacts and influences. At the same time, many managers suggested that lack of financial (and other resources), as well as the absence of legal requirements were some of the reasons why other impacts and influences were not measured. Thus it could be concluded that legislation enforcing CSR, together with financial incentives (or penalties for failure to meet such standards), could play a significant role in improving CSR in South Africa. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

This study examines the quantitative aspects of the demographic characteristics of the Indian population of South Africa over a period of one-hundred-and-thirty years, from 1860 to 1991, within the framework of demographic transition theory. It informs us about a distinctive group of people within a country of mixed races and presents a hitherto uncollated historical account of the demographic changes of a small, specific, minority group, in a racially mixed society, within a developing country. Its emphasis lies in tracing the historical evolution and development of a demographically unbalanced population to one that today may be regarded as falling within the general demographic classification of an 'ageing' population. It is set within the framework of demographic transition theory and a discussion of the formation of this theory and its usefulness today is included in this work. Changes in the vital rates of mortality and fertility are examined in detail and an in-depth look is taken at changes in the age and sex structure over time. Apart from a detailed account of the patterns and numbers of indenture during the years 1860 to 1911, the core of the analysis is contained in three major chapters dealing with population structure, mortality and fertility. The bulk of the primary data was obtained from the results of twelve censuses between 1891 and 1991, inclusive. During the relatively short time-span of Indian settlement in South Africa, considerable demographic changes have taken place in this population. This study traces the progression of the population far beyond its original, unbalanced structure, which arose from the practice of indentured labour. After this practice was abandoned, growth and structural change took place almost entirely by natural increase, the balance of births and deaths. The population passed through the youthful, expanding stage of development to a structure that today resembles, in many ways, those to be found in most developed, industrialised countries of the world - with a slow rate of growth, a decreasing proportion of children under 15 years of age and an increasing proportion aged 60+ years. The social and economic challenges which face the Indian community today are very different from those encountered in the previous 130 years of settlement in this country and can be directly related to the extensive demographic changes that have occurred over this period. These demographic changes and their occurrence over time form the essence of this treatise. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal,Durban, 2002.

Wetland degradation, which includes deterioration in functional performance and erosion, is a problem around the world. This has engendered a quest for causes and attempts to prevent the problem or to rehabilitate wetlands already degraded or undergoing degradation. The Craigieburn wetland system in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa has undergone erosion due to two downstream discontinuous gullies that have drained and considerably reduced the size of the wetland system. Measurements from 1954 to 1997 aerial photographs showed that over 40 years, the upper gully migrated headward over a distance of 30 m, while the lower gully eroded 522 m headward raising the question as to what caused their erosion? Prior to this study, the predominant view was that human activities, namely poor land use management within the wetland system, increased human occupation, and overgrazing on the adjacent catchment that caused a reduction in vegetation cover, were responsible for this wetland erosion. Detailed field observation, aerial photograph interpretation, soil analyses for mineralogy, chemistry and particle size distribution, landscape mapping, dumpy level survey of the wetland valley and statistical analysis were undertaken to establish the relationships between gullying and possible contributing factors. Human impacts on wetland gully development between 1954 and 1997 were estimated using the number of individual homes, and total lengths of footpaths, animal tracks and dirt roads. Agricultural activities and the stocking rate of livestock were excluded due to the poor quality of aerial photographs and lack of historical records. Results of multiple regression correlating lengths of the two gullies (upper and lower gullies) and the sum of these human factors gave a high correlation (adjusted R² = 0.92 and 0.90, respectively) but a low significance (p = 0.18 and 0.21, respectively). However, time has played a significant role in the erosion of both the upper gully (R² = 0.82, p = 0.02) and the lower gully (R² = 0.98, p = 0.02) at Craigieburn. X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry of weathered parent materials showed that the area has undergone deep weathering, supplying sediments to the wetland valley through surface run-off. The accumulation of these sediments resulted in localized over-steepening of certain sections of the valley floor with raised gradients of 0.0336 and 0.0337 at the two headcuts relative to the upper and lower non-eroding sections with lower gradients. These localized steep sections increased flow velocity and stream power and therefore stream erosivity thus triggering gully erosion. In addition to localized areas of raised valley floor, results from multiple regression showed a significant relationship (p = 0.002) between areas of earthflow scars and gully length, especially at the lower gully, thus further suggesting that physical factors are largely responsible for gully erosion at Craigieburn. Long-term climate change has resulted in the formation of two terraces, an older, D1 (USU-760, 1.67 ± 0.89 ka) and a younger, D2 (USU 761, 0.32 ± 0.08 ka). The former probably eroded during the medieval warming around 1230 AD while the younger terrace, which likely formed during the last half of the Little Ice Age, has been eroding since the renewed warming thereafter. This erosion has been exacerbated by short-term periodic or seasonal climatic changes, especially episodic summer rainfall events, which have likely played a key role in the headward migration of the two gullies. The result has been shrinkage of the wetland system by about 15 m on both sides of the valley, leaving behind a greyish soil colour indicating wet and reducing conditions in the past. These, together with dried relict mottles left behind in the soil matrix at the margin of the shrunken wetland system suggest past seasonal fluctuation of the water table engendering the belief that the wetland system once extended beyond its present limit. The overwhelming contribution of these physical factors, in addition to the fact that the two gullies predate human occupation of the study area catchment and environs, strongly argues for their responsibility in gully initiation and development at Craigieburn. Human presence and activities, which only became evident in the catchment from the 1950s onwards, may be secondary contributory factors. This conclusion encourages a rethink of previous views that human occupation and activities are solely responsible for this wetland gully erosion at Craigieburn and provides a rationale for including physical processes and climate change as factors when investigating causes of wetland erosion elsewhere. Such an understanding should be used to inform any rehabilitation or conservation efforts that are related to wetland ecosystems. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.