There is an increasing recognition that conservation projects need to provide tangible benefits to the communities involved in them. In Africa a common method of providing economic benefits to communities is to sell the right to hunt wildlife in conservation areas. The Makasa Nature Reserve is a joint project between a conservation body and a community. The reserve is a conservation project that aims to provide economic benefits to the community involved. There are a number of possible income generating strategies for the Makasa Nature Reserve. This study is an examination of the revenue that the reserve could generate from game hunting. There are a number of wildlife species on the reserve that can be hunted but buffalo are the most attractive to hunters and the most lucrative for the reserve. In order to determine the number of buffalo that can be harvested a two-stage approach was used. Firstly, a deterministic mathematical model of the buffalo population was developed in the study. This model was used to establish age structures of the buffalo population which will maximise a given objective function. An age structure that has a harvest level that will maximise the revenue of the reserve was selected as being the most appropriate for the buffalo population at Makasa. In the second stage a stochastic model of the buffalo population was developed which incorporated environmental and demographic stochasticity. A management policy for the buffalo population, which was based on the age structure that maximises revenue, was developed. The stochastic model was used to aid the development of the management policy and to determine the average harvesting rate of buffalo from the Makasa reserve. Using the information gathered on the harvesting rate of buffalo and combining it with the likely harvesting rate of other species from the reserve, it is possible to get a broad picture of the likely economic potential of game hunting on the Makasa Nature Reserve. This approach of determining the offtake of the economically dominant species in the reserve and then combining this information with the likely offtake of other species in the reserve can be generalised and applied to similar reserves. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

This dissertation provides an exploratory study of the environmental history of the Keate' s Drift area, Umvoti Magisterial District, KwaZulu-Natal. The broad objectives are to explore the past and present modes of resource use of people living in the area, human reproduction, human consciousness and ecology from the Stone Age to the present day. Thereby we can deduce how, through the application of the techniques and methodology of environmental history, these findings can help establish baselines for understanding the problems facing environmentalists and policy makers in South Africa today. Such understanding can inform the formulation of more effective policies for the future. The study provides a history of how significant change at all levels of production, reproduction, consciousness and ecology initiated the first complete ecological revolution in KwaZulu-Natal between the Stone and Iron Age societies. Using the same methodological parameters, the dissertation then proposes that an incomplete ecological revolution has occurred in Keate's Drift since colonial times. It has found that the pre-colonial mode of resource use still exists in some form, but relies heavily upon migrant remittance money obtained from the modem industrial mode of resource use. The two modes of resource use operating together underlie the conflict between modernity and traditionalism in the Keate's Drift area. Interpretation of the historical evidence proposes that planners in charge of land redistribution in the Keate's Drift area must realise the role of the legacy of the past in development proposals. Planners must realise that the traditional mode of resource use exists alongside elements of the industrial mode. This is a situation resulting from the area's history, and any long term development plan that is going to work, needs to understand the historical legacy of the problems if they are to be resolved. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1999.

South Africa is a country poorly endowed with natural forests, which account for less than 1% of the total land area. Due to the increase in the demand for forest products in the 1970's and 1980's, which could not be met by the natural forests , the two South African pulp and paper giants, Sappi and Mondi, started the Project Grow and Khulanathi schemes respectively. One of their objectives was to encourage rural communities, through financial assistance, to plant trees on their farms for sale to the forestry companies. Planting of trees by farmers on their own land for their economic, social and environmental (reafforestation) benefits is called social forestry . Social forestry should bring economic activity, capacity building and community empowerment. The benefits from social forestry are two dimensional. The growers benefit from the financial assistance and the readily available market provided by the company, while the company satisfies its demand for timber (pulpwood). The primary objective of this study is therefore to identify factors that influence the choice of trees as a land use in communal areas, and to recommend ways of improving benefits accruing to the growers in particular and the community in general. The factors were determined through structured face to face interviews consisting' of both closed and open-ended questions. The results of the study show that the major motivating factor in tree planting is the perceived financial benefits while lack of land is the major limiting factor. Even though tree planting contributes to social upliftment , it was found that there is 'insufficient capacity building, community empowerment and environmental awareness among growers. Cooperatives are recommended as institutions that will enhance growers' participation in tree planting and maximise the grower benefits from trees . As institutions, cooperatives will be better placed to access relevant information in areas such as marketing and have more bargaining power than individual growers. It is further recommended that the afforestation permit system should be reformulated to include permits for communally owned areas. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

Wind energy is a continuous, clean source of energy that can be harnessed for electricity generation or water pumping. The geographic location of Mozambique, and the long coastline renders the country a good wind energy potential that could potentially be exploited for water pumping or electrical power systems that have social and economic benefits and thereby contribute to a reduction in unsustainable practices of wood biomass burning which is the main source of energy in rural villages and high density suburbs of the main cities of the country. This study is focused on evaluating the potential of harnessing wind energy for electrical power generation in Mozambique using the Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Programme (WAsP) model. The study characterises wind speed patterns and wind frequency distributions at selected meteorological stations based on hourly observations, and models the available wind energy in coastal and interior areas. Meteorological parameters such as wind speed data from nearby meteorological stations and wind turbine characteristics were used as inputs into the model. To effectively harness wind energy, mean annual wind speeds should at least be 3 ms-1. For this reason only sites satisfying this criterion were selected. The spatial selection criteria considered a fair distribution of candidate sites such that coastal areas of the southern, northern and the interior Niassa and Nampula provinces were covered. The results of the WAsP model simulations, indicate that there is sufficient wind energy resource in both interior and coastal areas, which varies with height a.g.l., and that can be exploited for pumping water and generating electricity in small or medium electrical power systems, particularly the coastal areas of Ponta de Ouro, Mavelane, and Tofinho where the mean annual wind speed is above 5.0 ms-1 at the 10 m level and about 8.0 ms-1 at the highest levels (50 - 60 m a.g.l.) and interior area of Lichinga (mean annual wind speed of about 6 ms-1 at the same highest levels). The lowest wind energy potential (mean annual wind speed of about 4.0 ms-1) is found in the Nampula area. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2012.

The zoonotic potential of Trichinella zimbabwensis as supported by the clinical symptoms observed in experimentally infected, non-human primates (Mukaratirwa et al., 2001) necessitates research aimed at elucidating the distribution and epidemiology of this parasite. No controlled studies have been conducted to determine the predilection muscles of Trichinella zimbabwensis larvae in Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) or the influence of infection intensity on the distribution of the larvae in crocodiles. Neither has the influence of Trichinella zimbabwensis on biochemical parameters in crocodiles been assessed previously. To determine the distribution patterns of Trichinella zimbabwensis larvae and predilection muscles and to assess the influence on selected biochemical parameters, fifteen crocodiles were randomly divided into three cohorts of five animals each to represent high infection (642 larvae/kg of body weight), medium infection (414 larvae/kg of bodyweight) and low infection (134 larvae/kg of bodyweight) cohorts. In the high infection cohort, high percentages of larvae were observed in the tricep muscles (26%) and hind limb muscles (13%). In the medium infection cohort, high percentages of larvae were found in the tricep muscles (50%), sternomastoid (18%) and hind limb muscles (13%). For the low infection cohort, larvae were mainly found in the intercostal muscles (36%), longissimus complex (27%), forelimb muscles (20%), and hind limb muscles (10%). Predilection muscles in the high and medium infection cohorts were similar to those reported in naturally infected crocodiles despite changes in infection intensity. The high infection cohort had significantly higher numbers of larvae in the intercostal, longissimus complex, external tibial flexor, longissimus caudalis and caudal femoral muscles (P < 0.05) compared to the medium infection cohort. In comparison to the low infection cohort, the high infection cohort harboured significantly higher numbers of larvae in all muscles (P < 0.05) except for the tongue and pterygoid. The high infection cohort harboured significantly higher numbers of larvae (P < 0.05) in the sternomastoid, tricep, intercostal, longissimus complex, external tibial flexor, longissimus caudalis and caudal femoral muscles compared to naturally infected crocodiles. The importance of host characteristics in determining predilection and the importance of leg musculature as a predilection site for Trichinella spp. in sylvatic carnivores were both confirmed in this study. Deviations from normal parameters of blood glucose, alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), creatine phosphokinase (CPK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) compared to observations in uninfected reptiles were observed. Hypoglycaemia was not observed in the infected groups in this study. The humoral immune response to Trichinella zimbabwensis infection was evaluated in all three groups by way of indirect ELISA. Peak values of blood glucose, LDH and AST were observed on day 56, 49 and 42 p.i. in the high, medium and low infection cohorts respectively. CPK values peaked on day 35 p.i. in all three cohorts. Peak ALT values were reached on day 56 in the high infection cohort and on day 28 p.i. in both the medium and low infection cohorts. No correlations between the biochemical parameters and infection intensity were observed. Peak antibody titres were reached on day 49 p.i. in the medium infection cohort and on day 42 p.i. in both the high and low infection cohorts. Infection intensity could not be correlated with the magnitude of the humoral immune response or time to seroconversion. The effect of infection intensity on time to seroconversion, magnitude and persistence of the humoral immune response was assessed. No significant differences in the titre levels between the three groups were observed. Infection intensity could not be correlated with the magnitude of the humoral response or time to seroconversion. Results of this study were in agreement with results reported in mammals (wild boars and horses) infected with other Trichinella species and showed that antibody titres could not be detected indefinitely. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2013.

<p>Quantifying carbon fluxes and pools of forest ecosystems is an active research area in global climate study, particularly in the currently and projected increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration environment. Forest carbon dynamics are closely linked to the water cycle through plant stomata which are regulated by environmental conditions associated with atmospheric and soil humidity, air temperature and light. Thus, it is imperative to study both carbon and water fluxes of a forest ecosystem to be able to assess the impact of environmental changes, including those resulting from climate change, on global carbon and hydrologic cycles. However, challenges hampering such global study lie in the spatial heterogeneity of and the temporal variability of fluxes in forests around the globe. Moreover, continuous, long-term monitoring and measurements of fluxes are not feasible at global forest scale. Therefore, the need to quantify carbon and water fluxes and to identify key variables controlling them at multiple stands and time scales is growing. Such analyses will benefit the upscaling of stand-level observations to large- or global-scale modelling approaches. </p><p>I performed a series of studies investigating carbon and water fluxes in pine forests of various site characteristics, conditions and latitudinal locations. The common techniques used in these studies largely involved sap flux sensors to measure tree-level water flow which is scaled up to stand-level transpiration and a process-based model which calculates canopy light absorption and carbon assimilation constrained by the sap-flux beased canopy stomatal conductance (called Canopy Conductance Constrained Carbon Assimilation or 4C-A model). I collected and analyzed sap flux data from pine forests of two major species: Pinus taeda in temperate (36 °N) and Pinus sylvestris in boreal (64 °N) climatic zones. These forests were of different stage-related canopy leaf area and some were under treatments for elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration or fertilization. </p><p>I found that (Chapter 2) the 17-year long free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) had little effect on canopy transpiration of a mixed forest with the dominant P. taeda and other broadleaved species as the understory in North Carolina, USA (Duke FACE). The result was due to the compensation of elevated [CO2]-induced increase of canopy leaf area for the reduction of mean canopy stomatal conductance. My next theoretical study (Chapter 3), comparing P. taeda (native at 36 °N in North Carolina), P. sylvestris (native at 64 °N in norther Sweden) and Pinus contorta (native at 58 °N in British Columbia, Canada) canopies, revealed that the interaction between crown architecture and solar elevation associated with site latitude of pine canopies affected the distribution and total amount of canopy light absorption and potentially photosynthesis such that the latitudinally prescribed needle organization of a pine canopy is optimal for light interception and survival in its native location. Then, I quantified and analyzed water fluxes in four pine forests: one composed of P. taeda in North Carolina and three containing P. sylvestris in northern Sweden (Chapter 4). The latter forests consisted of various stage-related canopy leaf area and nutrient status. Combining my estimates with other published results from forests of various types and latitudinal locations, I derived an approach to estimate daily canopy transpiration during the growing season based on a few environmental variables including atmospheric and soil humidity and canopy leaf area. Moreover, based on a water budget analysis, I discovered that the intra-annual variation of precipitation in a forest has a small effect on evapotranspiration and primarily affecting outflow; however, variation of precipitation across latitudes proportionally influences anuual evapotranspiration and outflow. Furthermore, the hydrologic analyses implied the `disequilibrium' of forest water cycling during the growing season when forests may use less and more water in dry and wet regions, respectively, than the incoming precipitation. Nevertherless, at annual timescale, most forests became in `equilibrium' by using similar proportion of incoming precipitation. Finally, (Chapter 5) I estimated and analyzed the temporal and spatial variabilities of carbon fluxes of the same four forests measured in Chapter 4 using the 4C-A computational approach and analyzed their resource-use efficiencies. I concluded that, based on my results and others as available, despite the differences in species clumping and latitudes which influence growing season length and solar elevation, the gross primary productivity can be conservatively linearly related to the canopy light absorption. However, based on previous findings from a global study, different allocation of the acquired carbon to the above- and belowground is regulated by soil nutrient status. </p><p>Overall, the findings in this dissertation offer new insights into the impacts of environmental changes on carbon and water dynamics in forests across multiple sites and temporal scales which will be useful for larger-scale analyses such as those pertaining to global climate projection.</p> / Dissertation

This study investigates the effect of changes in map scale on the error in the development of areal map units and their associated erosion severity measurements of New Zealand’s (NZ) Land Use Capability (LUC) surveying system. A map scale of 1:50,000 was used in the underlying data (i.e., a LUC survey) of an Erosion Susceptibility Classification (ESC) system, which was developed by Bloomberg and others (2011) of the University of Canterbury for the Ministry for the Environment’s (MFE) 2010 proposed National Environmental Standard for Plantation Forestry. The ESC was intended for local erosion management decisions, yet most literature would classify the map scale of 1:50,000 as more appropriate for regional management issues. Thus, this study will test two finer 1:10,000 scale datasets against the current 1:50,000 national LUC areal map units and their erosion severity measurements of the underlying data for the ESC system, to quantify the level of agreement. This study first attempted to identify a unique discriminating parameter of high erosion severity. A case study was conducted in the Sherry River catchment, located in the Tasman District of the South Island, NZ. The Sherry River Case Study had two aims; the first was to investigate the correlation between the Melton ratio and LUC erosion severity. This was accomplished by calculating the Melton ratio, a tested morphometric factor that describes basin (watershed) ruggedness, using Irvine’s (2011) Geographic Information Systems (GIS) debris-flow model. The product of this GIS debris-flow model, a calculated Melton ratio ≥ 0.50 with the areal extent outlined by a River Environment Classification (REC) order one polygon, were designated the areas of interest (AOIs). The Melton ratio was then tested against LUC erosion severity using the Spearman’s Ranked Correlation Coefficient, within the designated AOIs. A field investigation was conducted to verify debris-flow in GIS identified AOIs. Only five of the thirteen AOIs identified showed evidence of debris-flow. Two were un-checked due to accessibility and the others had a high degree of fluvial activity, which indicates a high probability that surface evidence of alluvial erosion deposition was erased. Nominal association between the two measurements of erosion (Melton ratio and LUC erosion severity) was found at the map scales of 1:50,000 or 1:10,000. Therefore the Melton ratio was not recommended as an independent parameter of erosion severity. The second aim of the Sherry River Catchment study was to assess the sensitivity of empirically generalised LUC areal map units and their erosion severity measurements to spatial resolution, that is, what is the effect of agreement between the smallest measurable value when looking at LUC map units and their erosion severity measurements recorded at two different map scales. A hard classification accuracy assessment was chosen to accomplish this objective. An accuracy assessment is a statistical model, which provides a probability of error (uncertainty), in essence a goodness-of-fit measurement, and quantified the agreement between a sample and reference dataset. This was accomplished by the calculation of an Overall accuracy (i.e., overall thematic agreement), Producer’s accuracy, and a User’s accuracy analytical statistics. The Producer’s accuracy refers to the probability that an area of sampled erosion severity category in the sample map is classified as such according to the reference map, while the user’s accuracy refers to the probability that a point labelled as a certain erosion severity in the sample map has that severity rating in reality (i.e., according to the reference map). An accuracy assessment also includes a second goodness-of-fit test, the Kappa statistic (K ̂), which measures the agreement between the sample and references map as well as chance agreement. An accuracy assessment of the AOIs within the Sherry Catchment Study area using an 85% significance criterion was conducted. This accuracy assessment investigated a sample LUC survey measured at the map scale of 1:10,000, as compared to the referenced underlying data of the ESC (1:50,000 map scale). Overall accuracy was marginal (69%) with equally marginal levels of Producer’s and User’s accuracy. The Kappa statistic showed a marginal level of significance according to Landis and Koch (1977) (K ̂ = 44%). The disagreement seen between the two LUC surveys, which were empirically developed using different map scales, provides evidence of high spatial resolution sensitivity, when comparing areal map units and erosion severity measurements. To further investigate evidence of spatial resolution sensitivity in LUC surveying, a second case study was conducted using a LUC survey across a broad geographical area of the Manawatu-Wanganui Region of the North Island, NZ. A sample dataset from the LUC survey, empirically generalised at 1:10,000 map scale by the Horizons Regional Council, was compared to the referenced underlying data of the ESC. There was a moderately-strong consistency found between the assessors of each LUC survey using Spearman’s Ranked Correlation Coefficient. This provides evidence of limited surveyor bias, as each map was made using empirical judgment. The accuracy assessment’s overall agreement was 63% and as for the previous case study, had equally low Producer’s and User’s accuracy levels. The Kappa statistic for this case study was K ̂= 46%, a moderate chance agreement. This evidence, along with the evidence provided by the Sherry River Catchment Case study, suggested that the MFE’s ESC system is sensitive to changes in map scale and that any decision based on it will have different results when its underlying data is produced at different spatial resolutions. It is therefore recommended that MFE reassess the map scales and resolutions of its underlying data, given that the ESC’s purpose is for local level environmental management, before imposing the system as a regulatory requirement in the National Environmental Standards for Plantation Forestry.

Encouraging the use of computer algorithms by developing new algorithms and introducing uncommonly known algorithms for use on environmental science problems is a significant contribution, as it provides knowledge discovery tools to extract new aspects of results and draw new insights, additional to those from general statistical methods. Conducting analysis with appropriately chosen methods, in terms of quality of performance and results, computation time, flexibility and applicability to data of various natures, will help decision making in the policy development and management process for environmental studies. This thesis has three fundamental aims and motivations. Firstly, to develop a flexibly applicable attribute selection method, Tree Node Selection (TNS), and a decision tree assessment tool, Tree Node Selection for assessing decision tree structure (TNS-A), both of which use decision trees pre-generated by the widely used C4.5 decision tree algorithm as their information source, to identify important attributes from data. TNS helps the cost effective and efficient data collection and policy making process by selecting fewer, but important, attributes, and TNS-A provides a tool to assess the decision tree structure to extract information on the relationship of attributes and decisions. Secondly, to introduce the use of new, theoretical or unknown computer algorithms, such as the K-Maximum Subarray Algorithm (K-MSA) and Ant-Miner, by adjusting and maximizing their applicability and practicality to assess environmental science problems to bring new insights. Additionally, the unique advanced statistical and mathematical method, Singular Spectrum Analysis (SSA), is demonstrated as a data pre-processing method to help improve C4.5 results on noisy measurements. Thirdly, to promote, encourage and motivate environmental scientists to use ideas and methods developed in this thesis. The methods were tested with benchmark data and various real environmental science problems: sea container contamination, the Weed Risk Assessment model and weed spatial analysis for New Zealand Biosecurity, air pollution, climate and health, and defoliation imagery. The outcome of this thesis will be to introduce the concept and technique of data mining, a process of knowledge discovery from databases, to environmental science researchers in New Zealand and overseas by collaborating on future research to achieve, together with future policy and management, to maintain and sustain a healthy environment to live in.

Solid waste management is a global phenomenon that presents one of the most immediate and serious challenges in developing urban areas. Chatsworth is a formal residential township and is a product of the apartheid system, where solid waste removal was not seen as a priority. The inefficient waste management system has resulted in environmental degradation with solid waste increasingly being disposed off in streets, open spaces and streams etc. Waste heaps are becoming the breeding places of insects and pests and potential health hazards. Moreover, the aesthetics of this formal residential area is lost due to bad odour, unsightly dumpsites and deterioration of the environment. With most residential areas in South Africa having formal waste removal services, the continued existence of illegal dumps is still a serious problem . In the light of the above, the aim of this study was to investigate the solid waste management practice in Chatsworth and its negative impact on the human and natural environments. The social dimensions, perceptions, attitudes and solid waste practices of households were investigated to examine the relationship between socio-economic status and current waste practices. A survey assessment was conducted by means of a questionnaire designed to get community opinions and understanding of the type of service they received from the municipality. One hundred questionnaires were administered to householders in the study area. The study was complemented with semi-structured interviews with specific people of interest. The Statistical Package for Social Scientists was used for data entry and analysis. The findings of this study indicated that the waste collection system is inefficient and the attitudes, perceptions and socio-economic characteristics are significant factors contributing to effective waste management practices. Appropriate policy backed by legislation and enforceable regulations must underpin the strategic alternatives selected to deal with waste management in the eThekwini Municipality. The planning of integrated waste management should be seen as part of the solution of waste management and waste management should be appreciated as a public service that provides employment. resource recovery, and safe disposal of hazardous waste, reduced pollution and community development projects. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2004.

There has been a significant level of outcry opposing violence against females and the development of policies and legislation aimed at reducing this increasing problem that confronts South African society. Yet, violence and the fear of violence, especially gender-based violence, are widespread in South Africa. Despite the considerable research that has been undertaken on violence in South Africa, there remains a weak empirical and conceptual basis to understand females' environmental perceptions of violence and danger in secondary schools. This dissertation contributes to a greater understanding of the relationships between gender, violence and environmental perceptions. Gender specific spatialities, experiences and perceptions are critically examined. Critical concerns in the study include females' environmental perceptions of violence and images of danger in secondary schools, sources of information regarding violence and danger, types of violence that females are aware of, specific experiences of violence among the respondents and the coping strategies adopted by females. To enable a critical examination of the above issues, a comprehensive literature review was undertaken as well as fieldwork was conducted in two secondary schools (Dr A D Lazarus and Ridge Park College). Both female learners and teachers participated in the study. A variety of quantitative and qualitative methods were used including questionnaire surveys as well as mental mapping and ranking exercises to achieve the aims and objectives of this study. The key findings of the research show that violence and the danger of violence constrain the movements and the options of females. Furthermore, the results clearly illustrate discernible patterns of fear of violence, experiences of violence, perceptions of violence and responses to the perceived threat of violence among the respondents. Additionally, a disconcerting finding was that a significant proportion of the respondents at both schools viewed the school itself to be unsafe or located in close proximity to areas that they perceived to be dangerous. Undoubtedly, addressing issues pertaining to gender and violence in secondary schools (and in society more generally) will enhance females' abilities to effectively participate in and benefit from educational and development processes. This study shows that acts of violence generally and gender-based violence particularly need to be understood in their environmental contexts inclusive of the location! spatial, social, economic and political dimensions. Moreover, perceptions and the fear of violence, although they may not match actual risk, need to be responded to constructively. / Thesis (M.A.)- University of Durban Westville, 2002.