This dissertation examines the structure of epistemological claims made about science within the field of science and technology studies (STS). The social constructivist invocation to put science in "context" necessarily implies a logic of justification. Made explicit, this logic of justification provides a basis on which to adjudicate meta-scientific claims. The appeal to context blurs internal and external references, offers an ontological starting point for STS accounts of science, serves as the basis for methodological debate, and refers to values which anchor a notion of scientific objectivity. Hence: Contexts are assumed to exist. Contexts can be accessed and demarcated from other contexts in which they may be embedded; as a result, contexts are not paradigm-bound. Since contexts exist, the elements composing them are taken to exist in some logical and ontological relation to one another. Contexts are taken to affect scientific practice. Since contexts affect scientific practice some logical and ontological relation exists among the elements of the context, a given scientific practice, and the world that practice describes. Contexts are taken as temporally stable; infinite regress is not an immediate consequence of a local explanation of scientific practice. Since contexts exist in a stable, ontological relationship to the scientific practice they interpret or explain, criteria for justifying one context-based perspective over another are necessarily implied. Contexts necessarily imply justificatory criteria and imply a means for adjudicating among contexts and context-based statements. Since contexts imply a logic of justification independent of the scientific practice being examined meta-scientific evidence consists of observation statements. Context-based observation statements can, initially, be adjudicated a priori. A form of meta-scientific realism exists. If a form of meta-scientific realism exists, we can determine which contexts explain scientific practice and which do not. As a result we have epistemological claims about science which can be adjudicated on realist grounds which are not just the product of designated contexts. The future of STS turns on articulating a meta-scientific realism in relation to scientific practice and truths about the world. Finally, I advocate a contingent foundationalism on which STS can be made relevant to an understanding of science and technology. / Ph. D.

Thesis (M.A.-Psychology)--University of South Africa, 2001.

Friedrich Nietzsche, 100 years after his death, remains a controversial figure in philosophy. Much of this controversy stems from Nietzsche's view of truth, which seems superficially hopelessly contradictory, vacillating between relativism and denial of truth on the one hand, and praise for science and hard truths on the other. Thus, any person wanting to defend Nietzsche's positive philosophy must first make sense of his epistemology. The solution to this puzzle regarding Nietzsche's theory of truth is the realization that Nietzsche changes his view on truth. Much like Wittgenstien, Nietzsche had an early and a late period in his epistemic views, and a middle period where he is struggling with two very different, incompatible views. The late view of truth is surprisingly straightforward: Nietzsche can be seen as an early pragmatist. Once we have a coherent truth theory, we can then start to conclude some of the more contentious arguments in Nietzsche's philosophy, such as: what is the Will to Power, and how does Nietzsche's view of truth interact with his criticism of morality? This thesis will trace the development of the former and endeavor to answer some of the latter.

Friedrich Nietzsche, 100 years after his death, remains a controversial figure in philosophy. Much of this controversy stems from Nietzsche's view of truth, which seems superficially hopelessly contradictory, vacillating between relativism and denial of truth on the one hand, and praise for science and hard truths on the other. Thus, any person wanting to defend Nietzsche's positive philosophy must first make sense of his epistemology. The solution to this puzzle regarding Nietzsche's theory of truth is the realization that Nietzsche changes his view on truth. Much like Wittgenstien, Nietzsche had an early and a late period in his epistemic views, and a middle period where he is struggling with two very different, incompatible views. The late view of truth is surprisingly straightforward: Nietzsche can be seen as an early pragmatist. Once we have a coherent truth theory, we can then start to conclude some of the more contentious arguments in Nietzsche's philosophy, such as: what is the Will to Power, and how does Nietzsche's view of truth interact with his criticism of morality? This thesis will trace the development of the former and endeavor to answer some of the latter.

L'exploration de la diversité des êtres vivants dans les profondeurs marines est une histoire récente. C'est seulement à partir du XIXe siècle, sur un terrain vierge de toute connaissance, aussi bien géologique que biologique, que les scientifiques y révèlent progressivement la présence d'organismes, le plus souvent à l'occasion d'expédition à but économique. Par exemple, la pose de câbles télégraphiques a permis de découvrir fortuitement des organismes inattendus, ce qui a initié l'intérêt des naturalistes pour les grands fonds. Aujourd'hui, la connaissance de la diversité du vivant dans les profondeurs reste partielle. Les biologistes y font souvent face à la nouveauté et à l'imprévu, ce qui suscite un régime original de production des connaissances scientifiques reposant sur la description, elle-même fondée sur des hypothèses rarement explicitées, mal fondées sur un état de connaissance incomplet. D'autre part, ce sont souvent des intérêts économiques (tournés vers l'exploitation minière ou halieutique) qui orientent les explorations de la diversité des grands fonds vers certaines zones. Le présent travail doctoral développe une approche à la fois scientifique, historique et épistémologique liée des explorations marines et des données de biodiversité des profondeurs qui en résultent. Il s'agit de caractériser la transformation des représentations scientifiques du vivant et de sa diversité dans les profondeurs et d'identifier les facteurs et les éventuels biais méthodologiques qui déterminent l'acquisition et la structure de ces connaissances. Ce travail s'appuie sur un vaste corpus de documents rattachés au programme de campagnes océanographiques, initié en 1976 et mené conjointement par le MNHN (Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle) et l'IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement), appelé « Tropical Deep-Sea Benthos » (TDSB), anciennement « MUSORSTOM ». Ce programme informel d'exploration naturaliste cible depuis quarante ans la zone aphotique intertropicale principalement dans l'Indo-Ouest Pacifique. Une grande partie du travail a consisté en la structuration et la mise à disposition des données et des connaissances acquises pendant ce programme dans les bases de données du MNHN. Il a notamment permis de construire et d'alimenter la base de données des expéditions du MNHN (expeditions.mnhn.fr) dont le but est de fournir non seulement un référentiel géographique auquel les autres bases de données du MNHN peuvent se référer, mais aussi de documenter les métadonnées associées aux expéditions (rôle et spécialité des scientifiques participant aux campagnes, comptes-rendus de mission, photographies des spécimens et des récoltes). Parallèlement, un référentiel bibliographique a été conçu, qui permet de relier des publications aux différentes campagnes. Cette structuration des données au sens large permet de formuler des hypothèses sur la façon dont se construisent les représentations de la biodiversité et les explications qui s'y rapportent. L'analyse de ce corpus de publications a été menée en deux temps. Un premier moment descriptif a permis de dégager des tendances historiques et géographiques ainsi que des hypothèses sur les facteurs qui structurent le jeu de données obtenu. Une seconde approche a visé à étayer ces hypothèses en analysant finement le contenu des publications. Une grande partie de ces publications étant des travaux de taxonomie descriptive, cette analyse met en avant des constantes et des évolutions dans les pratiques de ce champ disciplinaire. En plus de l'analyse des documents associés au programme, un travail de contextualisation mené à partir de quinze entretiens de chercheurs permet de situer le programme TDSB dans l'histoire plus générale de l'exploration des grands fonds. / Exploring the diversity of living being in the deep sea is a recent story. It is only from the nineteenth century, on a virgin land of all knowledge, both geological and biological, that scientists gradually reveal the presence of organisms, usually on the occasion of expedition for economic purposes. For example, the laying of telegraphic cables has unexpectedly discovered organisms, which has initiated the interest of naturalists for the deep sea fauna. Today, the knowledge of the diversity of life in the depths remains partial. Biologists often face the novelty and the unexpected, which gives rise to an original regime for the production of scientific knowledge based on the description, which itself is based on hypotheses that are rarely explained and that are based on a state of incomplete knowledge. On the other hand, it is often economic interests (turned towards mining or fishing) that guide explorations of the diversity of the deep sea towards certain zones. The present doctoral work develops a scientific, historical and epistemological approach of the marine explorations and of the knowledge on biodiversity produces by this program. It is a question of characterizing the transformation of the scientific representations of the fauna and its diversity in the depths and of identifying the factors and the possible methodological biases which determine the acquisition and the structure of this knowledge. This work is based on a large corpus of documents related to the oceanographic cruises program, initiated in 1976 and conducted jointly by the MNHN (National Museum of Natural History) and the IRD (Research Institute for Development), called " Tropical Deep-Sea Benthos "(TDSB), formerly" MUSORSTOM ". This informal program of naturalist exploration has for forty years been targeting the intertropical zone, mainly in the Indo-West Pacific. Much of the work involved structuring and making available the data and knowledge gained during this program in the MNHN databases. In particular, it has helped to develop and complete the MNHN expedition database (expeditions.mnhn.fr), which aims to provide not only a geographical repository to which the other MNHN databases can refer, but also to document the metadata associated with the expeditions (role and specialty of the scientists participating in the cruises, mission reports, photographs of the specimens and substrate). At the same time, a bibliographic repository has been designed that links publications to different campaigns. This structuring of data in a broad sense makes it possible to formulate hypotheses on the way in which the representations of biodiversity and the explanations related to it are constructed. The analysis of this corpus of publications was conducted in two steps. A first descriptive approach made it possible to identify historical and geographical trends as well as hypotheses on the factors that structure the dataset obtained. A second approach aimed to support these hypotheses by finely analyzing the content of publications. Since most of these publications refer to a descriptive taxonomy field, this analysis highlights constants and evolutions in the practices of this disciplinary field. In addition to the analysis of the documents associated with the program, a contextualization work carried out from fifteen interviews of researchers makes it possible to situate the TDSB program in the more general history of deep-sea exploration.

This diploma thesis is focused on David Hume's analysis of causality. The two major philosophical works about this topic are A Treatise of Human Nature and Enquiries concerning Human Understanding. The first chapter is about intellectual background which Hume came from when he is dealing with cause-effect problem. At that time there were two main epistemological theories: rationalism and empirism. Both will be discuss there. The next chapter is about Hume's way of thinking about human understanding. This chapter is important for us beacuse there are many terms which will be useful for understanding causality. Crucial role plays The Theory of Ideas, according to each content of a mind has a source in experience. The first perceptions are called impresions and their copies are called ideas. Ideas are processed by memory and imagination. There are two categories of contents of human understanding: relations of ideas and matters of facts. We will focus on matters of facts because they are based on causality. Hume as a empirist is searching for a source of idea of causality in our experience. He finds out that we cant find it in objects of our minds themselves, but is based on relations among them. These relations are: contiguity, constant conjunction, priority of time in the cause before the effect and...

Ce mémoire propose une analyse du rôle épistémologique des problèmes scientifiques complexes. En partant du holisme épistémologique hérité des positions philosophiques de Pierre Duhem et de Willard Van Orman Quine, et de la thèse voulant que la pratique scientifique s’effectue toujours à partir d’un champ théorique et conceptuel reconnu, nous développons un modèle de gestion qui propose aux chercheurs l’adoption d’une attitude pragmatique pour réagir aux problèmes complexes. Nous expliquons dans cette recherche que ces problèmes affectent l’applicabilité des théories et concepts qui forment les connaissances scientifiques. Pour les résoudre, il faut initier des recherches qui suivront les étapes d’un processus pragmatique permettant d’évaluer progressivement la situation et d’en acquérir une meilleure compréhension. Durant cette période, les conséquences négatives du problème complexe sont tolérées afin d’assurer le maintien des activités scientifiques, qu’elles visent directement ou non l’atteinte d’une solution. La thèse défendue dans cette étude veut que la gestion des problèmes complexes qu’elle propose se conclut par l’élaboration rationnelle, encadrée par des décisions pragmatiques et une conjoncture favorable, d’une hypothèse ad hoc offrant une solution au problème. Si la communauté scientifique reconnait la valeur épistémologique de cette hypothèse, elle sera intégrée au champ théorique et conceptuel ce qui aura pour effet d’enrichir les connaissances scientifiques et de redonner à la science son statut « normal ». / This thesis proposes an analysis of the epistemological role of complex scientific problems. Starting from the epistemological holism inherited from the philosophical positions of Pierre Duhem and Willard Van Orman Quine, and from the thesis that scientific practice is always based on a recognized theoretical and conceptual field, we develop a management model that proposes that researchers adopt a pragmatic attitude to react to complex problems. We explain in this research that these problems affect the applicability of theories and concepts that form scientific knowledge. To solve them, we must initiate research that will follow the steps of a pragmatic process to progressively assess the situation and gain a better understanding. During this period, the negative consequences of the complex problem are tolerated in order to ensure the maintenance of the scientific activities that it directly targets, or not, the achievement of a solution. The thesis defended in this study is that the management of the complex problems that it proposes is concluded by the rational elaboration, framed by pragmatic decisions and a favorable conjuncture, of an ad hoc hypothesis offering a solution to the problem. If the scientific community recognizes the epistemological value of this hypothesis, it will be integrated into the theoretical and conceptual field which will have the effect of enriching scientific knowledge and giving back to science its "normal" status.