Expatriates and tourists both represent transient markets who travel to destinations and, to differing degrees, look to understand their host destination. To date, the overlap between tourism and expatriation has received scant analysis and yet could offer useful synergies. With this premise in mind, a two-stage, mixed methods study analysed the connection between tourists and expatriates in Dubai, UAE. The results from 36 face-to-face interviews and 439 questionnaires suggested that tourism practices do benefit expatriate adjustment by providing opportunities to expatriates and nationals to meet, interact, and learn from one another. The results offered the five Arenas of adjustment – the Individual, the Destination, Exposure opportunities, the Company, and the Host – that facilitate adjustment within the expatriate. Tourism is directly referred to in the Exposure Arena, reflecting a qualitative effect of tourism in adjustment. It was through such opportunities that tourism was found to encourage expatriate adjustment by either directly teaching expatriates and nationals about one another, or providing the opportunity for them to meet, interact, and learn.

As more companies enter the international market, the need for skilled expatriate managers will continue to grow. This demand for skilled expatriate managers is particularly evident when high international standards of service are desired for serving guests from disparate locations. Although expatriates perform an important role with the success of the home company heavily dependent on them, limited research has been conducted to examine organizational-level factors regarding expatriate adjustment. This research provides a contribution to the existing literature by investigating the relationship between perceived organizational climate and adjustment. Four dimensions of perceived organizational climate of the open system model were derived from the literature: commitment to learning, shared vision, open-mindedness, and innovativeness. To measure expatriate adjustment, three facets of adjustment [(i) general, (ii) interactional, and (iii) work adjustment,] are utilized to test the influence of the perceived organizational climate. A self-administrated online survey was distributed to expatriate hotel managers via email and 71 usable responses were received. Results were analyzed using multiple regression analysis and Baron and Kenny's (1986) procedure. The results found in this study indicate that the overall perceived organizational climate of the open system model significantly influences the adjustment of expatriate hotel managers. The perceived organizational climate dimension of open-mindedness, however, is the only significant predictor of the general, interactional, and work adjustment of expatriate hotel managers. This study also reveals that the perceived organizational climate mediates the relationship between expatriate training and the adjustment of expatriate hotel managers. / Master of Science

<p>This study investigates which out of seven predetermined factors influence the social adjustment of expatriates at a decentralized EU institution. Much of the existing literature that deals with expatriate adjustment departs from the assumption that the expatriates are entering an organization which is greatly influenced by the culture and customs of the country in which it is located, and that the expatriate is in minority in terms of nationality. In the decentralized EU institutions on the other hand (1) the culture of the organization and host country are markedly different from each other, and (2) the organization consists of mostly expatriates rather than host country nationals.</p><p>Three sources of data are used; secondary sources, questionnaires and interviews. The results show that all seven factors which were investigated to some extent influenced social adjustment. The unique nature of the decentralized EU institutions could be the reason to why organizational cultural novelty was perceived as more important for interaction adjustment and general cultural novelty more important for general adjustment. The unique nature also could also be the reason to the negative relationship between spouse adjustment and general adjustment, possibly because the expatriate families are more inclined to live in an international "bubble" when both work and social connections are multicultural.</p>

This study investigates which out of seven predetermined factors influence the social adjustment of expatriates at a decentralized EU institution. Much of the existing literature that deals with expatriate adjustment departs from the assumption that the expatriates are entering an organization which is greatly influenced by the culture and customs of the country in which it is located, and that the expatriate is in minority in terms of nationality. In the decentralized EU institutions on the other hand (1) the culture of the organization and host country are markedly different from each other, and (2) the organization consists of mostly expatriates rather than host country nationals. Three sources of data are used; secondary sources, questionnaires and interviews. The results show that all seven factors which were investigated to some extent influenced social adjustment. The unique nature of the decentralized EU institutions could be the reason to why organizational cultural novelty was perceived as more important for interaction adjustment and general cultural novelty more important for general adjustment. The unique nature also could also be the reason to the negative relationship between spouse adjustment and general adjustment, possibly because the expatriate families are more inclined to live in an international "bubble" when both work and social connections are multicultural.

Abstract After the Mainland China¡¦s opening policy, more and more enterprises invested in this giant business market, which is full of adventures and opportunities . In earlier days, only few people wanted to be assigned for working in Mainland China. Nowadays, much more people volunteer to develop their careers in Mainland China for a longer period. The thesis is trying to study the expartiate¡¦s personal characters, career orientations, expatriate motivation and expatriate adjustment, and further understanding the impacts of these four facters on the intention to stay in Mainland China. The results of this study indicate that: 1.The more voluntary expatriate have to work in Mainland China, the higher intention expatriate have to stay in Mainland China. 2.The expatriates who live with their families will have higher intention to stay in Mainland China. 3.People whose career orientation indicates ¡§getting ahead¡¨ have positive correlation with the expatriate motivations, which indicate self-fulfilling, self-esteem and security. The ¡§getting secure¡¨ people have negative correlation with the self- fulfilling motivation. 4.People whose personal characters indicate high ¡§interpersonal skills¡¨ will positively affect the expatriates¡¦ ¡§getting high¡¨ and ¡§getting ahead¡¨ career orientations, but negatively affect¡§getting balance¡¨ career orientation. Expatriates¡¦ high ¡§ability of conflict solving¡¨ will negaitively influent the ¡§getting ahead¡¨ career orientation. Furthermore obvious, their highly ¡§optimistic tendency¡¨ will negaitively influent the ¡§getting secure¡¨ career orientation. 5.People whose personal characters indicate high ¡§interpersonal skills¡¨, ¡¨ability of culture adjustment and ¡§optimistic tendency¡¨ will positively influent the expatriate whose expatriate motivation indicates ¡§self-actualization¡¨.Their high ¡§ability of conflict solvingl¡¨ will negaitively affect the ¡§secure¡¨ expatriate motivation. Expatriates¡¦ high ¡§ambiguous tolerance¡¨ will negaitively influent their ¡§social¡¨ expatriate motivation 6.People whose career orientation indicates ¡§getting free¡¨ have negaitive impact on their intention to stay in Mainland China. 7.People whose expatriate motivation are showing ¡§self- actualization¡¨ and ¡§social¡¨ have positively influence to their intention to stay in Mainland China. 8. People whose personal characters are showing high ¡¨ability of culture adjustment and interpersonal skills¡¨ positively influenceing their intention to stay in Mainland China. The expatriate¡¦ adjustment is a mediating factor between personal characters and the intention to stay in Mainland China.

Since the expatriates in management level have profound influences on the overall operation of overseas subsidiaries, it is significant for multinational corporations to understand the predictors of expatriate¡¦s entrepreneurship in cross-cultural contexts. Hence, based on 230 effective samples from expatriates in management level, this research investigates the relationships among expatriate¡¦s personality, cultural intelligence (CQ), expatriate adjustment, and international entrepreneurship, and cultural distance as a moderator. The results are outlined as follows. 1. Expatriate-oriented personality consists of high conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, emotional stability (i.e., low neuroticism), and flexibility and empathy; international entrepreneurship comprises local internal initiative, external market exploitation, and venture exploration. 2. Expatriate-oriented personality has positive influences on expatriate¡¦s CQ and international entrepreneurship. 3. CQ has positive influences on expatriate adjustment and international entrepreneurship. 4. Expatriate-oriented personality has positive influences on expatriate adjustment and international entrepreneurship through the mediating effect of CQ. 5. No matter how the cultural distance is, expatriate-oriented personality is able to enhance expatriate¡¦s international entrepreneurship; in median-high cultural distance, CQ¡¦s role in international entrepreneurship achieves its maximum effectiveness; in smaller cultural distance, expatriate adjustment better promotes the performance of international entrepreneurship.

The purpose of the study was to develop a substantive theory that would provide insight into the role of the Internet in expatriate adjustment in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Expatriate adjustment research has identified a number of challenges that expatriates experience when adjusting to the host country. These include spousal influence, cultural training/ understanding, fluency in the host language and the personality or emotional readiness of the expatriate. These challenges are amplified when considered in the context of the KSA, which has a large cultural distance when compared to the average Western culture and therefore, provides a setting for an interesting study. There are a limited number of studies available that consider the role of the Internet during the expatriate episode in general, but none that examine the role of the Internet on expatriate adjustment specifically. Furthermore, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, there is no research that provides a grounded theoretical understanding of the Internet in expatriate adjustment. The research project used a Grounded Theory based approach to develop a substantive theory on the role that the Internet plays in expatriate adjustment in the KSA. The conceptual account emerged from interviewing expatriates living in Western compounds in Riyadh, the capital of the KSA. The core concern that emerged from this study is one that describes the mediating effect of the Internet. This study hypothesised that the Internet had a regulating effect on expatriates’ degree of isolation and degree of information flow which would affect both their process of adjustment and their state of adjustment. Both the expatriates’ process and state of adjustment is expressed in terms of their well-being. The theory building study presents a theoretical model, grounded in rich empirical data. The theoretical model consists of two substantive categories: degree of isolation and degree of information flow. The former explains what contributes to the feeling of isolation experienced by expatriates. It was shown that the degree of isolation is a multifaceted concept influenced by expatriates’ living space, status, social support, mobility in the KSA and state of mind. The latter substantive category, the degree of information flow, explains the extent to which information can be exchanged between expatriates and other entities, be it family, friends or the outside world in general, including communication with other expatriates in the KSA. These two substantive categories were explained through the core category which was conceptualised by using the following metaphor: “the Internet a lifeline to the real world”. Considering the lifeline properties of the Internet, the theoretical model explained how it positively effects expatriate adjustment in the KSA. It was shown that the Internet, as a mediator, had an effect when considering adjustment as a process, as a state, and as an expression of expatriate well-being. This research was guided by two key research objectives: (a) to add theoretical content to the understanding of the role that the Internet plays in expatriate adjustment, and (b) to contribute to the IS body of knowledge by producing a theory that could be applied in practice. To the researcher’s best knowledge, this study is the first in IS literature to describe the significant role and the contextual issues that surround expatriate use of the Internet in the KSA. In doing so, the study developed an understanding, grounded in rich empirical data from the substantive field of expatriates. This new understanding contributes to both IS research and practice, and provides guidance for future research. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2015 / Informatics / PhD / Unrestricted

Globalization has led to interdependent relationships between nations and economies. As a result, there is a growing trend for organizations to send employees abroad for temporary assignments. Organizational development specialists have identified intercultural competence--a combination of affective, cognitive, and behavioral skills-as essential for executives to successfully manage the challenges of an increasingly diverse working environment. When couples are sent abroad on assignments, the employee and the non-working accompanying spouse often have very different experiences in terms of their contacts with the host culture. The employee moves into an organizational environment with a specific role and objectives. In contrast, the accompanying spouse may find him- or herself in an entirely different role. This study explored experiences of the employees and accompanying spouses in terms of their contact with the host culture and the intensity factors associated with their expatriate assignments. The participants completed the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDiv.3) to measure their intercultural competence, and engaged in a structured interview. I found similar levels of intercultural competence in both spouses. The majority scored in the ethnocentric stages of Minimization and below. Only one participant scored above Minimization in Acceptance. The findings from this study suggest that should offer support to the assignee and accompanying spouse according to their needs in that situation. Ideally the support would include both pre-departure cultural training and ongoing access to a skilled cultural mentor. The development of intercultural competence beyond Minimization requires self-reflection and an examination of assumptions, and this process is rarely followed without support or intervention.

The adaptation to a new country is a complex and stressful process that is compounded when changes in status and identity have to be made. This exploratory study examined the adaptation of international company transferee spouses when they decide to follow the transferee on overseas assignments. Research to date indicates that the spouses’ dissatisfaction with life abroad is the leading cause of transferees breaking contract and prematurely returning home. The causes of this dissatisfaction are still not clear and this study sought greater clarification, particularly examining the experiences of male as well as female trailing spouses. The study, thus, takes gender as a main variable to consider. It explores how gendered expectations inherent in the structures of society inflect and inform the decisions, attitudes, and behaviors that affect the adaptations of trailing spouses living in a foreign habitus. The study is based on eight months of ethnographic research in two culturally different locations, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and Brussels, Belgium. Forty-two American international company transferee spouses were recruited (seven males and thirty-five females). The data analysis revolved around five main themes: (1) the comparison of male with female trailing spouses’ experiences, (2) the effect of location on spouses’ adaptation, (3) the communities that spouses integrate into, (4) variations in personal work and family histories, and (5) conditions of exit. The analysis engaged multiple theories regarding gender, sociological adaptation, and psychological adaptation. Results indicate that both socio-cultural and psychological factors affect adaptation and that gender matters very significantly, particularly along two axes: (1) gendered structures in our society create different reasons why males and females become trailing spouses, (2) the gendered social constructions of role expectations make the experience of being a trailing husband different from being a trailing wife. In addition spouses’ status as parents (or not) and their “readiness for change” were found to be important predictors of positive spousal adaptation. In contrast, significant ties with families in the home country and strong professional identity with career projections were important predictors of negative spousal adaptation.

Globalization and international business increasingly require the services of skilled expatriates in overseas offices. Over the past 50 years, numerous studies have focused on various factors affecting expatriate adjustment, primarily through quantitative research, reaching no conclusions on what factors in cross-cultural training would guarantee expatriate success. Expatriate failure has high personal and organizational costs. The purpose of this study was to use the qualitative methodology of narrative inquiry to investigate the adjustment, transition, and repatriation experience as a holistic process. Two theoretical constructions, Bandura's social learning theory, applied to the learning process in an international assignment, and social identity theory, represented key factors in the expatriate experience. The overarching research question investigated the distinct factors that contributed to the overall success or failure of an expatriate. Narrative inquiry, and open-ended questions, allowed the participants to reveal their stories. Participants (N = 14) were selected using criterion and convenience sampling. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded into themes using an iterative process. Results established weak organizational support in the preparation and repatriation stages. Participants considered their assignments a success and exhibited strong self-efficacy and internal locus of control. The need for successful expatriate performance will continue to increase with globalization; findings in this study can contribute to the training, support, and repatriation of employees. The potential for social change includes the improvement in global business functioning and international understanding.