Expectancies about the effects of alcohol predict alcohol consumption among adolescent children. Although alcohol-expectancy measures have been validated to use with English speaking populations, there is currently no available information on the psychometric properties of the Comprehensive Effects of Alcohol (CEOA) questionnaire with Spanish speaking populations. Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), the factor structure of the Spanish version of the CEOA was assessed in a set of scores obtained from a sample of adolescents from Mexico (N = 345). The results replicated the 7-factor structure of the CEOA. Moreover, CEOA factor-scale derived scores predicted alcohol use. Overall, the CEOA-Spanish appears to be a valid measure of alcohol expectancies for use with Mexican adolescents.

Stress contributes to both the initiation and maintenance of drug use. Drug intake, specifically alcohol, may be reinforced under stressful conditions by reducing anxiety or tension. The pharmacological effects of alcohol, however, cannot account entirely for the tension-reducing experience of intoxication. This suggests that cognitive factors contribute to the stress-dampening effects of alcohol. This study examined this hypothesis by testing how tension-reduction alcohol expectancies moderate the relationship between stress and alcohol intoxication. Stress response was operationalized as an increase in subjective anxiety and impaired sustained attention. Verbal learning, which was hypothesized to not be impaired by the stressor, was used as a cognitive control. One hundred and nine undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of five groups (low, medium or high dose alcohol; sober; or placebo). Following beverage consumption, participants completed cognitive tasks before and after the Trier Social Stress Test. Participants completed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory – State upon arrival in the lab, as well as pre- and post-stressor. They also completed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory – Trait and the College Drinking Influences Survey, which includes a Stress Reduction scale. Social stress did not hinder cognitive performance, whereas alcohol impaired sustained attention and verbal learning abilities. The stressor evoked a subjective stress response that was reduced by alcohol and the expectancy of alcohol (i.e., placebo). There was no evidence to suggest that tension reduction alcohol expectancies moderated this effect. These findings replicate alcohol’s ability to dampen a stress response and, furthermore, demonstrate that the expectancy of alcohol is as effective as the drug itself in reducing subjective response to stress. This study highlights the need for further research to elucidate which factors modulate the stress-dampening effect of alcohol in undergraduate students. This knowledge, in turn, could present an opportunity for screening and early interventions to circumvent problem drinking as alcohol consumption is used by this population to cope with stress. / Thesis (Master, Psychology) -- Queen's University, 2010-09-24 13:28:03.555

While overall rates of college student drinking have declined slightly since 1980, extreme forms of drinking are escalating. A comprehensive review of all aspects of alcohol use among college students completed by a panel of scientists and college presidents concluded that very few approaches for dealing with student drinking can be considered empirically validated, and they strongly encouraged additional efforts to develop and validate effective strategies. Expectancy challenge approaches designed to reduce risky drinking through changing key expectancies have been identified as one of the few validated strategies, but this approach has not been developed into a format that is reliably effective with females or readily delivered in a single meeting. Widespread implementation of expectancy-based strategies is dependent on further evolution of a pragmatic format of this approach while maintaining effectiveness with groups that has already been established and increasing effectiveness with other groups. The purpose of the present study was to develop and evaluate a new version of expectancy challenge to accomplish two specific goals that are critical for widespread dissemination and implementation. First, new content focused on key expectancies typically held by heavy drinking females was developed in an effort to achieve significant reductions in alcohol use among women. Second, the content of the intervention for men and women was condensed to a single session. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the redesigned expectancy challenge in reducing drinking among high-risk individuals, the intervention was implemented with heavy drinking males and females at a large state university. Exposure to the single session expectancy challenge led to significant changes in alcohol expectancies and significant reductions in subsequent drinking in both males and females in comparison to participants randomly assigned to an active control condition or an assessment-only control condition. These findings represent a critical step in the process of translating a theory-based intervention strategy validated in intensive academic laboratory designs, into a more practical format while maintaining, and even enhancing effectiveness. The single session expectancy challenge developed and validated in this project is more accessible to those seeking effective drinking reduction strategies for college campuses and will encourage further development of pragmatic strategies based on expectancy theory.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Older adults with persistent pain experience reduced physical functioning, increased disability, and higher rates of depression. Previous research suggests that different types of positive and negative expectancies (e.g., optimism and hopelessness) may be associated with the severity of these pain-related outcomes. Moreover, different types of expectancies may interact with perceived control to predict these outcomes. However, it is unclear whether different types of expectancies are uniquely predictive of changes in pain-related outcomes over time in older adults and whether perceived control moderates these relationships. The primary aims of the current study were to 1) examine how the shared and unique aspects of optimism and hopelessness differentially predict changes in pain-related outcomes (i.e., pain severity, pain interference, disability, and depressive symptoms) in older adults experiencing persistent pain over a 10-year and 2-year timeframe and 2) examine whether perceptions of control over one’s health moderate these relationships. The present study sampled older adults with persistent pain who participated in a nationally representative, longitudinal study (i.e., The Health and Retirement Study) at three timepoints across a 10-year period. First, confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted to determine appropriate modeling of expectancy variables. Second, mixed latent and measured variable path analyses were created to examine the unique relationships between expectancy variables and changes in pain-related outcomes over both a 10- year and 2-year period. Finally, mixed latent and measured variable path analyses and PROCESS were used to test perceived control as moderator of the relationships between expectancy variables and changes in pain-related outcomes over time. CFA results suggested that measures of optimism and hopelessness were best understood in terms of their valence, as positive (i.e., optimism) or negative (i.e., pessimism and hopelessness) expectations. Results from path analyses suggested that only negative, not positive, expectancies were significantly associated with worsening pain severity, pain interference, disability, and depressive symptoms across both 10-year and 2-year periods. Moderation analyses demonstrated inconsistent results and difficulties with replication. However, post-hoc path analyses found that perceptions of control over one’s health independently predicted some changes in pain-related outcomes over time, even when controlling for expectancies. Altogether, the current findings expand our knowledge of the associations between expectancies and pain by suggesting that negative expectancies are predictive of changes in mental and physical pain-related outcomes across years of time. The current study also suggests that positive and negative expectancies may be related, but distinct factors in older adults with persistent pain and that health-related perceived control may be predictive of changes in pain over time. The current discussion reviews these extensions of our current knowledge in greater detail, discusses the potential mechanisms driving these relationships through a theoretical lens, and identifies the implications of this work.

Both the transdiagnostic risk associated with depression and the eating disorder-specific risk associated with expectancies for reinforcement from thinness have been identified as risk factors for the development of weight restricting behaviors. The purpose of this study was to examine if these risk factors transact to further predict risk in youth. Depression, thinness expectancies, and weight restriction were assessed in 1,907 adolescents three times during the transitional period between middle school and high school. We compared three different possible transactional processes. Mediation tests demonstrated that depression in 8th grade predicted an increase in the number of weight restricting behaviors endorsed in 10th grade through its predictive influence on thinness expectancies in 9th grade. However, our results were not consistent with a mediational process in which thinness expectancies predicted depression to further predict weight restriction. The two risk factors interacted to predict subsequent weight restriction, such that at higher levels of depression, the association between thinness expectancies and weight restriction was stronger. It appears that transdiagnostic and disorder-specific risk factors transact to increase risk. These findings contribute to the understanding of the developmental risk process for weight restricting behavior in youth.

In alcohol literature, various genetic and environmental theories have been proposed for the transfer of alcohol problems, however these have resulted in a number of unanswered questions regarding the extent that these factors influence the transmission of alcohol use behaviour. It is therefore suggested that specific cognitions related to alcohol use are fundamental in determining future alcohol use. Studies by Oei and colleagues (Baldwin, Oei, & Young, 1993; Lee & Oei, 1993; Oei & Burrow, 2000; Oei, Fergusson, & Lee, 1998) have investigated two cognitive constructs that together have shown to be predictive of the quantity and frequency of alcohol use; Alcohol Expectancies (AE) and Drinking Refusal Self-Efficacy (DRSE). Whereas a number of studies have shown that parental alcohol behaviour and attitudes can predict their offsprings’’ alcohol use, no study to date has directly assessed parents’ AE and DRSE with those of their children. The current thesis proposed a cognitive model for the Intergenerational Transference of Alcohol Use Behaviour (see Campbell & Oei, 2010) suggesting that parental alcohol cognitions and behaviour will contribute to their offsprings’ cognitions, in turn leading to their alcohol use. Study 1 (N = 1256) tested the cognitive model to determine its accuracy and the relationships it encompasses. The data was then split into younger (<12 years) and older (>12 years) child groups to determine if the model was consistent in offspring in differing maturational and cognitive stages of development and alcohol use. It was revealed that the overall data fit the model well. Different patterns were however revealed between the two groups suggesting that parental alcohol use behaviour was moderately associated with alcohol expectancies in their young children, whereas their AE and DRSE became more significant in the maintenance of their older offsprings’ alcohol use. Study 2 (N=492) tested the model across parent/offspring gender dyads in an attempt to isolate the cognitive and behavioural aspects that are specific to gender in determining the intergenerational transference of alcohol use behaviour. Same and cross gender comparisons revealed that sons were influenced by paternal, but not maternal, alcohol cognitions, whereas no influence was exerted on daughters’ cognitions or behaviour from either parent. Such findings suggest that males may be more prone to genetic influences whereas females may be more sensitive to disruptions in their home environment. As such, the role of Family Functioning was assessed in Study 3 (N =482) to determine whether this environmental factor contributes further to the overall cognitive model between sons and daughters. Results indicated that family environment was significantly related to parents higher AE and lower DRSE, but not their offsprings’. Separation of parent and child data revealed that sons, but not daughters, were influenced more by family functioning. However, upon further investigation results revealed that poor family environment had a greater impact on fathers than mothers, and that this impacted on sons but not daughters. It therefore seems plausible from these results that females (mothers and daughters) alcohol use is related to variables external to the family environment such as peers or media. The final study tested the cognitive model using longitudinal data to determine causal relationships in the transference of alcohol use behaviour. Findings suggest that the relationship between parent and offspring alcohol cognitions could explicitly predict children’s alcohol use behaviour. Specifically, the model revealed that parents’ self-efficacy beliefs, but not their expectancies, was associated with children’s DRSE, and that children’s alcohol cognitions significantly predicted their alcohol consumption six months later. The study did reveal however that children’s alcohol expectancies may become less influential in the maintenance of alcohol consumption as they get older. Overall findings suggest that the cognitive model for the intergenerational transference of alcohol problems has advantages for prevention and treatment strategies, particularly given that that cognitions, and in turn behaviours are particularly modifiable to change. Theoretical implications also exist such that a testable model adds depth to the conceptualisation of the mechanisms for the transference of alcohol problems within families. Particularly, the opportunity arises to incorporate cognitive influences into the intergenerational literature, resulting in a more thorough Genotype x Environment x Cognitive theory.

According to Bradbury and Fincham’s contextual model of relationship conflict, communication behaviour is likely influenced by relationship factors at both the distal and proximal level. The overall goal of the present study was thus to build on previous research on marital conflict by examining the relations between relevant distal (i.e. marital satisfaction and depressive symptomatology), and proximal relationship variables (i.e. event-dependent expectancies and appraisals), and communication behaviour. Our specific aims were threefold: a) to explore the impact of marital satisfaction and depression on couples’ expectancies for marital problem-solving discussions; b) to examine the effect of such expectancies on actual communication behaviour, after controlling for marital satisfaction and depressive symptoms; and c) to determine whether expectancies and actual communication behaviour influence couples’ post-discussion appraisals, even after controlling for levels of depression and marital satisfaction. A total of 76 married and cohabitating couples across varying levels of marital satisfaction and depression participated in this study. All couples engaged in two marital problem-solving discussions, one in which the husband wanted change and the second in which the wife wanted change. Before engaging in these problem-solving discussions, spouses’ expectancies for resolving the topic of conflict were assessed using both affective and cognitive items. After each discussion ended, participants also rated their cognitive and affective appraisals of the interaction. Results showed that higher levels of marital satisfaction predicted more positive expectancies (both affective and cognitive) for successful communication in the upcoming interactions. Depressive symptoms, however, were only found to impact couples’ feelings in anticipation of the discussions, and not their cognitive expectancies. With regards to actual communication behaviour, after controlling for the effects of marital satisfaction and depressive symptoms, more positive expectations for an upcoming conflict discussion were associated with less negative communication behaviours during the discussion. Spouses’ cognitive post-discussion appraisals of the conflict interactions were positively associated with individuals’ own expectancies going in to these discussions, as well as their partners’ expectancies over and above the effects of depression and marital satisfaction. Finally, actual communication behaviour also influenced appraisals, such that those who spent more time during the conflict discussions engaging in positive behaviours and less time engaging in negative communication behaviours reported greater satisfaction with the discussions. Implications of these results for couples’ therapy are briefly discussed.

According to Bradbury and Fincham’s contextual model of relationship conflict, communication behaviour is likely influenced by relationship factors at both the distal and proximal level. The overall goal of the present study was thus to build on previous research on marital conflict by examining the relations between relevant distal (i.e. marital satisfaction and depressive symptomatology), and proximal relationship variables (i.e. event-dependent expectancies and appraisals), and communication behaviour. Our specific aims were threefold: a) to explore the impact of marital satisfaction and depression on couples’ expectancies for marital problem-solving discussions; b) to examine the effect of such expectancies on actual communication behaviour, after controlling for marital satisfaction and depressive symptoms; and c) to determine whether expectancies and actual communication behaviour influence couples’ post-discussion appraisals, even after controlling for levels of depression and marital satisfaction. A total of 76 married and cohabitating couples across varying levels of marital satisfaction and depression participated in this study. All couples engaged in two marital problem-solving discussions, one in which the husband wanted change and the second in which the wife wanted change. Before engaging in these problem-solving discussions, spouses’ expectancies for resolving the topic of conflict were assessed using both affective and cognitive items. After each discussion ended, participants also rated their cognitive and affective appraisals of the interaction. Results showed that higher levels of marital satisfaction predicted more positive expectancies (both affective and cognitive) for successful communication in the upcoming interactions. Depressive symptoms, however, were only found to impact couples’ feelings in anticipation of the discussions, and not their cognitive expectancies. With regards to actual communication behaviour, after controlling for the effects of marital satisfaction and depressive symptoms, more positive expectations for an upcoming conflict discussion were associated with less negative communication behaviours during the discussion. Spouses’ cognitive post-discussion appraisals of the conflict interactions were positively associated with individuals’ own expectancies going in to these discussions, as well as their partners’ expectancies over and above the effects of depression and marital satisfaction. Finally, actual communication behaviour also influenced appraisals, such that those who spent more time during the conflict discussions engaging in positive behaviours and less time engaging in negative communication behaviours reported greater satisfaction with the discussions. Implications of these results for couples’ therapy are briefly discussed.

The current study was designed to examine the influence of cultural orientation on alcohol involvement among Mexican-American adolescents. Also, this study assessed whether cultural orientation predicted positive and negative alcohol expectancies for the effects of drinking one to two drinks or bingeing; and whether alcohol-use expectancies mediated the effects of acculturation on drinking practices. The participants were 300 Mexican-American high school students (M = 16.5, SD = 1.15; 178 female and 122 male) from a city along the Texas/Mexico border who were mostly self-identified as 2nd generation Mexican-Americans. The students completed the questionnaires regarding alcohol involvement, acculturation, and alcohol expectancies. Significant findings in the current study indicated a higher orientation to Mexican culture predicted higher levels of alcohol involvement for boys; whereas, a higher orientation to U.S. culture predicted higher alcohol involvement for girls. Also, identification with Mexican culture for girls predicted negative alcohol expectancies for low and high quantities of alcohol use.

Eating disorder expectancy theory proposes a causal role for expectancies for reinforcement from thinness. The authors conducted an experimental test of that hypothesis. Undergraduate college women (N = 154) were randomized to either a psychoeducational control of proven effectiveness or an experimental manipulation of thinness and restricting expectancies. Participants in each condition attended three experimental sessions and one, follow-up session, each one week apart. For both groups, body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, purging frequency, and binge eating frequency declined over the course of the study. In addition, the thinness expectancy manipulation produced greater declines in thinness expectancies, body dissatisfaction, and purging behavior than the psychoeducational manipulation. These results provide further support for the role of expectancies in the etiology of eating disordered behaviors.