Expectations regarding the relationship between exchange rates and the prices of traded goOds in small open economies have traditionally been derived from the idea of the relative unimportance of a single small country when trading in much larger international markets. This concept has led to the use of distinct 'small-country' or 'dependent-economy' models to analyse the effects of macroeconomic changes. Thus for small economies like Australia, it is usually assumed that the foreign-currency prices of traded goods are fixed in perfectly competitive international markets. Accordingly, exchange rate movements must be completely absorbed in domestic-currency prices. In other words, the pass-through of exchange rate changes to destination-currency prices must be zero for Australian exports, and complete for Australian imports. Such expectations regarding the degree of exchange rate pass-through contrast sharply with those found in conventional macroeconomic models for large countries, in which pass-through is assumed to be complete for all traded goods. Moreover, they conflict with the results derived from the large theoretical and empirical literature on the microeconomic determinants of pass-through, which suggests that much international trade takes place in imperfectly competitive markets, in which the degree of less-than-complete pass-through depends on industry-specific factors. This study explores these apparent conflicts by re-examining the small-country assumption, with particular emphasis on export prices as the area of greatest divergence. Specifically, it addresses three research questions: 1) What are the theoretical conditions that underlie the small-country assumption? 2)What are the implications for the macroeconomic models of small economies if this assumption is violated? 3) In practice, is the data more consistent with the validity or otherwise of the assumption? The analysis focuses on Australia as a practical example of a small open economy with a high proportion of commodity exports. In summary, the theoretical and empirical results reported in this study suggest that the small-country assumption is unlikely to hold in practice. That is, exchange rate pass-through is more likely to be determined by industry-specific factors, rather than by the universal conclusion of zero pass-through for all Australian exports that is derived from the small-country assumption. Further, they imply that the movement in internal prices required to restore equilibrium in a small country following an external shock is likely to be both larger and more uncertain than has previously been expected. Under such circumstances, the full flexibility of the exchange rate, as the primary and most rapid source of the required adjustments, becomes particularly significant. An important policy implication for small open economies that are subject to frequent terms of trade shocks, such as Australia, is that attempts to manage the exchange rate in order to reduce apparently excessive movements may in fact result in a longer and more protracted process of adjustment through the labour market.

In this study, exchange rate pass-through into the export prices and import prices is analyzed separately at the disaggregate level. The study also attempts to differentiate exchange rate pass-through in the short-run and long-run. To analyze pass-through in the short-run, dynamic modeling is used. To analyze pass-through in the long-run, cointegration analysis is conducted. Estimation results show that exchange rate pass-through into the import prices is complete even at the disaggregate level. However, there is variation in the pass-through into the export prices across sectors both in the short-run and long-run. Not all exporting sectors, even in a small open economy like Turkey, are price takers in the foreign markets.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-25T18:40:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CCA - ANTONIO ANDRADE BARBOSA.pdf: 988032 bytes, checksum: d9ca9af84089dece137263898828900e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-10-02 / This essay is intended to show the importance of the small business in the economic plan. In the Brazilian economy, it assumes a very important role; however, in what concerns to foreign trade, and in comparison with other Countries, it still has to grow, though it does have potential to develop. Believing on this export plan growth potential, this present study is intended to contribute to such development, by analyzing the export prices planning. It addresses the price formation strategy based on costs and market economic theory. It examines the costing methods and how they should be utilized in cost analysis for an effective export sale price planning. It proposes the costs strategic administration of costs based on the Target Costing, which, taking into consideration the market vision, does not miss the importance of profit planning for the company perpetuation. The Kaizen Costing brings to the company the thinking that it is always possible to improve the methods and processes. The Activity Based Costing (ABC), despite its difficult application in the small business, is analyzed under the standpoint of a tool to supply the information to the Value Engineering required by the Target Costing. Still in this cost administration context, specific export costs and their incentives are analyzed, as a way to obtain competitive edge by rationalizing the costs and optimizing the incentives. Tributary planning is also used in such thinking aiming at saving on taxes for the company. The work is concluded with a small business profile analysis, because an export sale price planning model is proposed based on this business and its owner s peculiar characteristics / Neste trabalho, procura-se mostrar a importância da pequena empresa no plano econômico. Na economia brasileira, ela assume esse papel importante, porém, no que tange ao comércio exterior, comparativamente a outros países, ela tem deixado a desejar, mas tem potencial para desenvolver-se. Acreditando nesse potencial de crescimento na pauta de exportação, o presente estudo procura contribuir para esse desenvolvimento, analisando o planejamento de preços de exportação. Discute a estratégia de formação de preços com base na teoria econômica, de mercado e custos. Examina os métodos de custeio e como eles devem ser utilizados nas análises de custos para um eficaz planejamento do preço de venda de exportação. Propõe a administração estratégica dos custos com base no Custo Meta que, levando em consideração a visão de mercado, não perde de vista a importância do planejamento do lucro para a perpetuação da empresa. O Custeio Kaizen traz para a empresa a mentalidade de que sempre é possível melhorar os métodos e processos. O sistema de Custeio Baseado em Atividade (ABC), apesar de sua difícil aplicação na pequena empresa, é analisado sob a ótica de uma ferramenta para dar subsídio à análise da Engenharia de Valor requerida pelo Custo Meta. Ainda nesse contexto de administração dos custos, analisam-se os custos específicos da exportação e seus incentivos, como forma de se ganhar vantagem competitiva com a boa racionalização daqueles e boa utilização destes. O planejamento tributário é também utilizado nesse raciocínio visando à economia de impostos para a empresa. Conclui-se o trabalho com uma análise do perfil da pequena empresa, pois é a partir de suas características peculiares e de seu titular que se propõe um modelo de planejamento de preço de venda para a exportação

La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo principal determinar los factores que influyeron en las exportaciones de la leche evaporada con partida arancelaria 0402911000 hacia el mercado de los Estados Unidos durante el periodo 2008-2018. La metodología que se usó para el estudio fue de tipo descriptiva, con diseño no experimental, con un corte longitudinal y con un enfoque mixto al intervenir variables cualitativas y cuantitativas, tales como las medidas sanitarias y fitosanitarias, el valor FOB y la producción. El principal resultado en el enfoque cualitativo fue el grado de influencia de las exigentes medidas sanitarias que impactó en el desempeño de las exportaciones al mercado estadounidense, debido a que, las normas norteamericanas difieren de las normas internacionales. Por otro lado, en el enfoque cuantitativo, el hallazgo en la competitividad del valor FOB ha favorecido las exportaciones hacia el mercado estadounidense. Sin embargo, en la producción, pese a que se cuenta con la materia prima necesaria para abastecer mercados internacionales, la falta de apoyo por parte del Estado para orientar a los productores es la causa de fondo del porque no se ha llegado a la competitividad esperada. La población de estudio está conformada por 16 gerentes y jefes de las empresas Gloria y Nestlé; En donde se aplicó entrevistas semiestructuradas a expertos como instrumento de recolección de datos. El estudio pretende responder si las normas de etiquetado son una barrera al comercio, y si la competitividad del valor FOB y la producción contribuye a las exportaciones. / The main objective of this investigation was to determine the factors that influenced the evaporated milk exports tariff heading 0402911000 to the United States market during the period 2008-2018. The methodology used for the study was descriptive, with a non-experimental design, with a longitudinal section and with a mixed approach, involving qualitative and quantitative variables, such as sanitary and phytosanitary measures, FOB value production. The main result in the qualitative approach was the degree of influence of the demanding sanitary measures that had and impact of the performance of exports to the US market, because the North American standards differ from the international standards. On the other hand, in the quantitative approach, the finding in the competitiveness of the FOB value has favored exports to the US market. However, in production, despite having the raw material necessary to supply international markets, the lack of support from the State to guide producers is the root cause of why the expected competitiveness has not been reached. The study population is made up of 16 managers and heads of the companies Gloria and Nestle; Where semi-structure interviews with experts were applied as an instrument for data collection. The study aims to answer whether labeling rules are a barrier to trade, and whether the competitiveness of FOB value and production contributes to exports. / Tesis

How should central banks react to movements in the exchange rate? Can social welfare be improved if the policy maker is giving explicit or implicit consideration to fluctuations in the exchange rate? These are some of the principal questions addressed in this thesis, which analyzes the influence of exchange rates on prices and monetary policy, from an empirical as well as a theoretical perspective. The thesis consists of four self-contained papers, and sets off by providing some empirical evidence for incomplete exchange rate pass-through. Incomplete exchange rate pass-through is subsequently incorporated into a theoretical model of a small open economy, to study how exchange rate fluctuations affect monetary policy. The first chapter is an empirical paper studying the relation between exchange rates and prices, using data on Swedish exports of automobiles and kraft paper. A price determining error correction model indicates results consistent with price discrimination and incomplete exchange rate pass-through. In the second chapter, a small open economy aggregate supply-aggregate demand model, allowing for incomplete exchange rate pass-through, is developed to analyze the effects of limited pass-through on monetary policy. The results suggest that the optimal policy reaction, both to foreign and domestic shocks, is dependent on the degree of exchange rate pass-through. The third chapter studies what the delegated monetary policy should be in an open economy with limited pass-through. In particular, the question of whether to delegate an exchange rate-stabilization objective to the policy maker is investigated. The results show that incorporation of an explicit nominal, or real, exchange-rate term in the (optimized) objective function only improves social welfare marginally. The fourth chapter assumes, in contrast, that monetary policy is implemented through a simple instrument rule. It is examined whether the policy maker’s performance, in terms of social welfare, can be improved by also responding to the exchange rate. The results indicate that the exchange rate-augmented policy rules do not outperform an optimized rule without the exchange rate, irrespective of the degree of pass-through. Social welfare is, however, improved by an indirect exchange rate response, which is reached using a policy rule based on Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation, rather than on domestic inflation. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögsk., 2001

The price level convergence of the transition economies towards the reference economies is linked to the relative price of nontradables, which is explained by the total factor productivity differentials in tradable and nontradable sector. Basic concept is offered by the Balassa Samuelson model and its modifications. Testable equations are derived from these models, and the panel data approach is applied for their estimation. The results indicate faster growth of the relative price of nontradables in transition economies as succession of higher growth rate of the total factor productivity in tradable sector. Hence estimated models confirm the price level convergence of transition economies towards the reference economies. The analyses of price dynamics of the complementary field, i. e. of the tradables, follows, and the basic concept is represented by the rational bubble hypothesis. The stress is putted on the impact of the word prices on the price levels of the Czech Republic. After a cointegration analysis of the time series is carried out, the influence of the word prices of tradable commodities is estimated within a vector error correction model and regression analysis. This cost factors analysis is afterwards related to the export dynamics of the Czech Republic, and models suitable for quantitative analysis of export dynamics as well as its prediction based on vector error correction model and regression analysis are evaluated. Their forecasting ability is assessed within a simulation of ex-post forecasts and a root mean squared error. The aim is to consider the relationship between the price levels and the export dynamics, for the relation of both variables evaluated within the Granger causality seems to be less straightforward then the standard export equations suggest, and the estimated equations confirm significant influence of the export dynamics on the price level.