Cette thèse vise à étudier la valorisation des rejets thermiques de basse température (inférieure à 100 °C) par les machines à absorption, dont principalement les transformateurs de chaleur à absorption (AHT) pour générer de la chaleur à une température plus élevée, et les cycles de réfrigération par absorption (ARC) pour la production de frigories. Les performances des machines à absorption sont exprimées suivant les températures et les COP qu’elles peuvent atteindre. Ces deux paramètres dépendent de l’architecture de la machine, des composants utilisés et de la paire de fluides réfrigérant-absorbant circulant dans la machine. L’objectif principal de ce travail est une nouvelle génération d’AHT qui puisse rendre utile la chaleur avec une différence de température par rapport à la source de chaleur disponible (rejet thermique) d’au moins 50°C. Pour l‘ARC, on cible une nouvelle génération de cycles capables de produire des frigories à une température inférieure à -20°C.Les résultats obtenus représentent une avancée majeure dans le domaine des cycles à absorption. En effet, les objectifs fixés de valorisation de chaleur basse température, jusqu’à 45°C, en rendant disponible de la chaleur haute température (supérieure à 120°C) et basse température (inférieure à -20°C) ont été atteints. Ceci représente une différence de température entre le rejet thermique et la chaleur utile de 75°C minimum. L’utilisation d’éjecteurs avec certains fluides de travail a permis le développement d'une nouvelle génération de cycles à absorption. / This thesis aims at studying the low temperature waste heat recovery (less than 100°C) by the use of absorption machines, mainly absorption heat transformers (AHT) to generate heat at a higher temperature, and absorption refrigeration cycles (ARC) to generate chilling power. The performances of absorption machines are expressed according to the temperatures and the COPs which they can reach. These two parameters depend on the cycle configuration, the components used and the refrigerant-absorbent pair of fluids circulating in the machine. The main objective of this work is a new generation of AHT which can produce heat with a difference in temperature compared to the available heat source (heat rejection) of at least 50°C. For the ARC, a new generation of cycles capable of producing chilling power at temperatures lower than -20°C is aimed.The results obtained represent a major progress in the absorption cycles field. The objectives set for this work of low temperature heat recovery, up to 45°C, by making available high temperature heat (above 120°C) and low temperature (below -20°C) have been achieved. This represents a minimal temperature difference between the waste heat and the useful heat of 75°C. The use of ejectors with specific working fluids allowed the development of a new generation of absorption cycles.

On considère le transfert de chaleur au travers d'un film liquide de faible épaisseur s'écoulant par gravité le long d'un plan incliné, l'objectif étant de comprendre les mécanismes d'intensification des transferts par l'hydrodynamique du film et d'optimiser la géométrie d'un échangeur.Un modèle simplifié fondé sur une méthode intégrale aux résidus pondérés appliquée aux équations de Navier-Stokes et de Fourier a été développé. Un outil de résolution de système d'équations aux dérivées partielles utilisant la méthode des lignes a été écrit. Celui-ci utilise les différences finies pour discrétiser les dérivées spatiales et un schéma Runge Kutta implicite d'ordre élevé couplé à un contrôleur de pas de temps afin de garantir une résolution stable et performante des modèles.Ce modèle simplifié nous a permis de mettre en avant les liens entre l'hydrodynamique (et en particulier la recirculation ayant lieu au sein de la crête des ondes propagatives) et l'intensification des phénomènes de transferts, lien confirmé par résolution des équations primitives du problème.En effet, une étude paramétrique de l'intensification des transferts sur un élément représentatif d'une plaque d'échangeur par une excitation monochromatique en entrée d'écoulement a été menée. Elle montre le lien entre la présence de recirculation au sein des ondes propagatives et accroissement des transferts.Le modèle a été étendu afin de prendre en compte un fond à géométrie variable. Des travaux préliminaires sur l'effet d'un fond ondulé sur les transferts indiquent qu'une faible inclinaison soit nécessaire pour qu'un effet notable soit observé / We consider the heat transfer across a thin liquid film flowing by gravity along an tilted plane. This work aims at the identification of the mechanisms of heat transfer intensification and the optimization of the geometry of a plate exchanger.A simplified model based on weighted residual integral method applied to Navier Stokes and Fourier equations has been developed. A tool for solving system of partial derivative equations using the method of line has also been written. Spatial discretization is dealt with finite differences. A high order implicit Runge Kutta scheme with an adaptative time stepping, allows a stable and efficient resolution.This simplified model allowed us to link the fluid's dynamics (and especially the presence of recirculations under traveling wave crests, alos called roll waves) with transfer intensification. This link has been confirmed solving the primitive equations . Indeed, a parametric study of the transfer intensification on a signature/representative element of an exchanger plate by a monochromatic frequency has been conducted showing that transfer intensification is related to the onset of roll waves.The effect of a variable wall goemetry has been included to the model. Preliminary work points out the need for a low inclination to yield a significant effect on transfer intensification

Após a reunião de Kyoto ficou estabelecido o sistema de \"crédito carbono\" no qual as indústrias que reduzissem a emissão de gás carbônico para o ambiente aufeririam algumas vantagens. Neste sentido já há uma procura por parte de algumas empresas em reduzir esta emissão. Na maioria dos casos esta emissão é reduzida por meio da absorção do CO2 através de uma base, por exemplo, soda, amônia, cal, aminas, entre outras. O caso da amônia e da soda é interessante para empresas que possuem outros efluentes com estas bases em concentrações bem baixas, resultando assim soluções bem diluídas dos sais correspondentes. Soluções muito diluídas ou são descartadas no meio ambiente, que atualmente é proibido, ou são concentradas. A concentração, dessas soluções, usando vapor como meio de aquecimento torna-se um contra-senso por exigir a emissão de CO2 decorrente da queima de óleo combustível em caldeiras. Técnicas bem mais compatíveis com a preservação ambiental serão bem vindas daqui por diante, principalmente aquelas que não emitem CO2. Observando este fato este trabalho visa desenvolver um evaporador com promotor de película, em escala de laboratório para concentrar soluções diluídas, empregando energia solar como meio de aquecimento. O procedimento proposto não emite CO2, sendo mais compatível com a preservação ambiental. O equipamento construído consta de: coletor solar tipo placa plana com inclinação ajustável, promotor de película (aderido ao coletor),distribuidor de líquido, coletor de concentrado e acessórios. Foram estudadas as influências das variáveis: inclinação do coletor, vazão de alimentação e condições meteorológicas, na taxa de evaporação. As condições meteorológicas não podem ser controladas, mas foram constantemente monitoradas. Obtiveram-se maiores eficiências, quando a inclinação do coletor foi ajustada mensalmente, com valores até 36,4% maiores do que quando o coletor permanece fixo. / The system of Carbon Credits established by the 1997 Kyoto Protocol benefits companies that reduce their emissions of carbon into the environment with some advantages. Since the Protocol was signed, many companies have sought new ways to reduce their emissions. In most cases, these emissions are reduced through CO2 absorption by a base, e.g., soda, ammonia, lime and amines, among others. Ammonia and soda are interesting bases for companies that produce other effluents containing these products in much lower concentrations, resulting in highly diluted solutions of the corresponding salts. Highly diluted solutions are either discharged into the environment, which is forbidden today, or they are concentrated. Concentrating these solutions using vapor, as a means of heating is unfeasible since that would involve the emission of CO2 from burning oil in boilers. Therefore, from now on, attention will focus increasingly on more environmentally friendly techniques, especially techniques that do not cause CO2 emissions. A solar energy powered falling film evaporator with film promoter was developed for concentrating diluted solutions (industrial effluents). The procedure proposed here does not emit CO2, making it a viable alternative to the method of concentrating solutions. This novel device consists of the following components: a flat plate solar collector with adjustable inclination, a film promoter (adhering to the collector), a liquid distributor, a concentratecollector, and accessories. The evaporation rate of the device was found to be affected both by the inclination of the collector and by the feed flow. The meteorological variables cannot be controlled, but were monitored constantly to ascertain the behavior of the equipment in response to the variations occurring throughout the day. ) Higher efficiencies were attained when the inclination of the collector was adjusted monthly, showing up to 36.4% higher values than when the collector remained in a fixed position.

Após a reunião de Kyoto ficou estabelecido o sistema de \"crédito carbono\" no qual as indústrias que reduzissem a emissão de gás carbônico para o ambiente aufeririam algumas vantagens. Neste sentido já há uma procura por parte de algumas empresas em reduzir esta emissão. Na maioria dos casos esta emissão é reduzida por meio da absorção do CO2 através de uma base, por exemplo, soda, amônia, cal, aminas, entre outras. O caso da amônia e da soda é interessante para empresas que possuem outros efluentes com estas bases em concentrações bem baixas, resultando assim soluções bem diluídas dos sais correspondentes. Soluções muito diluídas ou são descartadas no meio ambiente, que atualmente é proibido, ou são concentradas. A concentração, dessas soluções, usando vapor como meio de aquecimento torna-se um contra-senso por exigir a emissão de CO2 decorrente da queima de óleo combustível em caldeiras. Técnicas bem mais compatíveis com a preservação ambiental serão bem vindas daqui por diante, principalmente aquelas que não emitem CO2. Observando este fato este trabalho visa desenvolver um evaporador com promotor de película, em escala de laboratório para concentrar soluções diluídas, empregando energia solar como meio de aquecimento. O procedimento proposto não emite CO2, sendo mais compatível com a preservação ambiental. O equipamento construído consta de: coletor solar tipo placa plana com inclinação ajustável, promotor de película (aderido ao coletor),distribuidor de líquido, coletor de concentrado e acessórios. Foram estudadas as influências das variáveis: inclinação do coletor, vazão de alimentação e condições meteorológicas, na taxa de evaporação. As condições meteorológicas não podem ser controladas, mas foram constantemente monitoradas. Obtiveram-se maiores eficiências, quando a inclinação do coletor foi ajustada mensalmente, com valores até 36,4% maiores do que quando o coletor permanece fixo. / The system of Carbon Credits established by the 1997 Kyoto Protocol benefits companies that reduce their emissions of carbon into the environment with some advantages. Since the Protocol was signed, many companies have sought new ways to reduce their emissions. In most cases, these emissions are reduced through CO2 absorption by a base, e.g., soda, ammonia, lime and amines, among others. Ammonia and soda are interesting bases for companies that produce other effluents containing these products in much lower concentrations, resulting in highly diluted solutions of the corresponding salts. Highly diluted solutions are either discharged into the environment, which is forbidden today, or they are concentrated. Concentrating these solutions using vapor, as a means of heating is unfeasible since that would involve the emission of CO2 from burning oil in boilers. Therefore, from now on, attention will focus increasingly on more environmentally friendly techniques, especially techniques that do not cause CO2 emissions. A solar energy powered falling film evaporator with film promoter was developed for concentrating diluted solutions (industrial effluents). The procedure proposed here does not emit CO2, making it a viable alternative to the method of concentrating solutions. This novel device consists of the following components: a flat plate solar collector with adjustable inclination, a film promoter (adhering to the collector), a liquid distributor, a concentratecollector, and accessories. The evaporation rate of the device was found to be affected both by the inclination of the collector and by the feed flow. The meteorological variables cannot be controlled, but were monitored constantly to ascertain the behavior of the equipment in response to the variations occurring throughout the day. ) Higher efficiencies were attained when the inclination of the collector was adjusted monthly, showing up to 36.4% higher values than when the collector remained in a fixed position.

A computational model is developed to investigate fundamental flow physics and transport phenomena of evaporating wavy-laminar falling liquid films of water and black liquor. The computational model is formulated from first principles based on the conservation laws for mass, momentum, energy and species in addition to a phase transport equation for capturing interface deformation and evolution. Free surface waves are generated by monochromatic perturbation of velocity. Continuum models for interfacial evaporation define source terms for liquid vaporization and species enrichment in the conservation laws. A phenomenological crystallization model is derived to account for species depletion due to salt precipitation during black liquor falling film evaporation. Using highly resolved numerical grids on parallel computers, the computational model is implemented to analyze the dynamics of capillary separation eddies in low Reynolds number falling films, investigate the dominant mechanisms of heat transfer enhancement in falling films at moderately high Reynolds numbers and study the fundamental wave structures and wave induced transport in black liquor falling films on flat and cylindrical walls. From simulation results, a theory based on the dynamics of wavefront streamwise pressure gradient is proposed to explain interfacial waves interaction that give rise to multiple backflow regions in films dominated by solitary-capillary waves. The study shows that the mechanism of heat transfer enhancement in moderately high Reynolds number films follows from relatively lower conduction thermal resistance and higher crosswise convective transport at newly formed intermediate wavefronts. Interfacial phenomena such as wave-breaking and vapor entrainment observed in black liquor falling films is explained in terms of a mechanistic theory based on evolution of secondary instabilities and large amplitude wave force imbalances.

A need was identified for a set of basic design tools for Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) plant evaporators. This led to an investigation into the different types of evaporators as well as further research on horizontal falling film evaporators as used in the MED process. It also included the theory on these types of evaporators. In order not to duplicate existing design tools, an investigation was also performed on some of the tools that are currently available. The first set of tools that were developed were tools, programmed in EES (Engineering Equation Solver), for the vacuum system and the evaporator. These programs can be used to simulate different parameters (like different mass flows and temperatures). That enables the correct selection of components for the vacuum system and can be used to address sizing issues around the evaporator. It can also be used to plan the layout of the plant. The second of the design tools was developed by designing and building a flow pattern test section. From the flow pattern test section a set of curves for the wetted length under different conditions was obtained which can be used in order to design the sieve tray. This set of curves was found to be accurate for municipal as well as seawater and can be used in the design of the sieve tray of the evaporator. Further development can be done by implementing the figures of the wetted length into a simulation package like, for example, Flownex (a system CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) code that enables users to perform detail design, analysis and optimization of a wide range of thermal-fluid systems). The background gained from the study done on the evaporator can also be implemented into such a package. This could solve the problem of different design packages by creating a single design package with all of the above mentioned options included. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Nuclear Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

A need was identified for a set of basic design tools for Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) plant evaporators. This led to an investigation into the different types of evaporators as well as further research on horizontal falling film evaporators as used in the MED process. It also included the theory on these types of evaporators. In order not to duplicate existing design tools, an investigation was also performed on some of the tools that are currently available. The first set of tools that were developed were tools, programmed in EES (Engineering Equation Solver), for the vacuum system and the evaporator. These programs can be used to simulate different parameters (like different mass flows and temperatures). That enables the correct selection of components for the vacuum system and can be used to address sizing issues around the evaporator. It can also be used to plan the layout of the plant. The second of the design tools was developed by designing and building a flow pattern test section. From the flow pattern test section a set of curves for the wetted length under different conditions was obtained which can be used in order to design the sieve tray. This set of curves was found to be accurate for municipal as well as seawater and can be used in the design of the sieve tray of the evaporator. Further development can be done by implementing the figures of the wetted length into a simulation package like, for example, Flownex (a system CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) code that enables users to perform detail design, analysis and optimization of a wide range of thermal-fluid systems). The background gained from the study done on the evaporator can also be implemented into such a package. This could solve the problem of different design packages by creating a single design package with all of the above mentioned options included. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Nuclear Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Cette thèse porte sur le développement d’un procédé industriel propre constitué par un couplage absorption-distillation, destiné aux traitements d’effluents gazeux chargés par un Composé Organique Volatil (COV). L’absorption est effectuée dans un microabsorbeur à film tombant. La première étape de ce travail consiste à caractériser le transfert de matière dans cet appareil, lors de l’absorption gaz/liquide du Perchloroéthylène (PCE) par le Di(2-EthylHexyl)Adipate (DEHA). Les expériences ont montré la faisabilité et l’intérêt de cette opération dans un micro-contacteur. En effet, les efficacités d’épuration obtenues sont comparables à celles des procédés classiques (jusqu’à 97%) et les quantités de solvant d’absorption utilisées sont très faibles. Une étude paramétrique a révélé une intensification significative du transfert de matière, côté gaz, et un gain en compacité, à la suite de la minimisation de l’épaisseur de la veine de gaz (2mm) et du débit de la phase gazeuse. Cette étude a également montré la limite du microabsorbeur à traiter de grands débits de gaz avec de bonnes efficacités, causée par la faible influence qu’exerce la vitesse du gaz sur le coefficient de transfert de matière. Ce comportement a été expliqué, grâce à des simulations en 2D, par une dispersion importante des profils de concentration indiquant une limitation diffusionnelle. Cette dernière provient essentiellement du régime laminaire lisse et de la petite taille caractérisant ce type de micro-procédé. Pour s’affranchir de cette limitation, la turbulence doit être favorisée dans le gaz. La deuxième étape de ce travail concerne l’extrapolation du microabsorbeur de laboratoire à l’échelle industrielle des PME/PMI, basée sur le concept du numbering-up. A l’issu des calculs, un absorbeur microstructuré efficace (95%), et compact (surface occupée ˜ 0,5m2) a été développé. Pour rentabiliser son fonctionnement, un recyclage par distillation flash du solvant d’absorption a été étudié. Les résultats obtenus ouvrent la voie sur une technique d’épuration prometteuse, qui nécessite néanmoins une validation théorique et expérimentale du couplage absorbeur-distillateur / This project focuses on the development of an industrial process, in which a coupled absorption/distillation unit is developed to treat gaseous effluents contaminated by a Volatile Organic Compound (VOC). Absorption is performed in a falling film microabsorber. The first stage of this work consists in characterizing the mass transfer in this device. The gas/liquid absorption of Perchloroethylene (PCE) by Di (2-EthylHexyl) Adipate (DEHA) is used as test case. Experiments showed the feasibility and the benefit of this separation process operated in a micro-contactor. Indeed, the purification efficiencies obtained are comparable to those of conventional processes (97%). Moreover, the required absorption solvent quantities are very low. A parametric study revealed significant mass transfer intensification on gas side and a gain in compactness due to the minimization of gas cavity thickness (2mm) and gas flowrate. This study also showed the limits of microabsorbers to handle large gas flowrates with good efficiencies, due to a low influence of gas velocity on the mass transfer coefficient. This behaviour was explained, thanks to 2D simulations, by a significant dispersion of concentration profiles, which indicates a diffusion limitation. The latter comes mainly from smooth laminar flow and the small size, a typical characteristic of micro-processes. To overcome this limitation, turbulence should be promoted in the gas. The second stage of this work concerns the microabsorber extrapolation from laboratory scale to industrial SMEs, based on the numbering-up concept. Calculations predict high throughputs with a microstructured absorber of competitive efficiency (95%) and high compactness (area occupied ˜ 0.5 m2). For profitable operation, solvent absorption recycling by a flash distillation is studied. The results lead to a promising treatment technique, which still requires a theoretical and experimental validation of the coupled absorber-distiller unit

Les poudres laitières sont obtenues par concentration du produit liquide (membranes, évaporation sous vide) puis séchage du concentré. Contrairement au séchage par atomisation, peu de travaux ont été menés sur la concentration par évaporation sous vide. Pourtant, la maîtrise du schéma global de production des poudres gagnerait en une meilleure compréhension de cette opération réalisée dans des évaporateurs à flot tombant. Le présent travail vise à étudier comment améliorer les performances des évaporateurs ; il s’appuie sur deux facteurs limitants de l’opération : l’encrassement des surfaces d’échange et la viscosité maximale en sortie des évaporateurs. La contribution des différents constituants des produits à l’encrassement a été étudiée grâce à une méthodologie développée sur un évaporateur pilote.Les résultats obtenus ont permis d’identifier les éléments minéraux qui contribuent à l’encrassement lors de la concentration de microfiltrat et d’ultrafiltrat de lait, de lactosérums acides chlorhydrique et lactique. Afin de dépasser l’extrait sec maximal en sortie des évaporateurs à flot tombant, deux évaporateurs rotatifs à couche mince, de conceptions différentes, ont été testés à l’échelle pilote. Les études de faisabilité ont été menées jusqu’à la poudre. Le potentiel des équipements a été évalué suivant les propriétés fonctionnelles des poudres et le coût énergétique d’élimination de l’eau. Dans l’un des cas, le remplacement de la tour de séchage par deux évaporateurs rotatifs en série constitue une rupture technologique pour la production de poudres de perméat et dimi / Dairy powders are produced using a two-step process: concentration of the liquid product (membrane, concentration by vacuum evaporation) and drying of the concentrate. Contrary to spray-drying, vacuum concentration has been poorly investigated. However, a better understanding of this unit operation carried out in falling-film evaporators would lead to an improved control of the global process scheme for the production of powders. This PhD project aims to highlight how to enhance the performances of falling-film evaporators; it focuses on two limiting factors of the vacuum concentration: the fouling of the heating surfaces and the maximal viscosity at the outlet of the falling-film evaporators. The contribution of the different product components to the fouling was investigated using a methodology developed at pilot-scale.Our results showed which mineral elements favored the fouling of falling-film evaporators during the concentration of milk microlfiltrate and ultrafiltrate as well as hydrochloric and lactic acid wheys. Besides, two thin-film rotative evaporators of different designs were tested at pilot-scale in order to exceed the maximum dry matter achieved in falling-film evaporators. The feasibility studies were conducted up to the production of powders. The capabilities of the equipment were evaluated according to the functional properties of powders and the specific energy costs relative to the removal of water. In one case, the combination of two rotative evaporators replacing the spray drier constitutes a technological breakthrough in the production of permeate p

Le présent travail est consacré en premier lieu à l'investigation des limites de fonctionnement et de performances des machines frigorifiques à absorption et absorption-diffusion utilisant des mélanges d'alcanes comme fluides de travail et l'analyse en second lieu du processus d'absorption le long d'un absorbeur à film tombant en présence d'un gaz inerte. Dans le cas d'un refroidissement à l’eau les meilleures performances réalisées sont celles d'une machine utilisant le binaire C₃H₈/n-C₉H₂₀ avec un COP de l'ordre de 0.51 dans l'intervalle de la température de la chaleur motrice [110-125℃]. Une machine à absorption-diffusion utilisant ce même mélange en combinaison avec l’hydrogène permet de réaliser un COP de l'ordre de 0.44 pour une température de la chaleur motrice ne dépassant pas 120℃. Une étude approfondie est par suite menée sur l’absorption en présence d’un gaz inerte. Les résultats des l’étude ont montré entre autres que les deux résistances aux transferts de chaleur et de matière sont toutes les deux prédominantes en phase vapeur et ont révélé un taux d'absorption de l'ordre de 34% à travers une surface d'échange de 0.15m². Pour évaluer la réponse du système aux variations de ses principaux paramètres caractéristiques une étude paramétrique a été menée. Cette étude a permis d'appréhender le comportement complexe du processus d'absorption en présence d'un gaz inerte. / This work is aimed primarily to investigate the feasibility limits and the performance of absorption and absorption-diffusion cooling machines using light alkane mixture as working pairs and secondarily to analyze the absorption process along a falling film absorber in the presence of an inert gas. It is shown that in the case of water cooling the best performances are those of an absorption machine using the C₃H₈/n-C₉H₂₀ binary mixture with a COP of about 0.51 in the heat driving temperature range 110-125℃. A COP of about 0.44 is attained with an absorption-diffusion cooling machine using the same mixture in combination with hydrogen with a heat driving temperature of 120℃. A detailed study of the absorption process with the C₃H₈/n-C₉H₂₀ pair and hydrogen as inert gas is conducted. The study results show that the heat and the mass transfer resistances are both prevalent in the vapor phase. An absorption rate of about 34% through an exchange surface of 0.15m² is calculated. A parametric study is carried out to evaluate the system response to the changes of its main characteristic parameters. This study allows a better understanding of the complex behavior of the absorption process in the presence of an inert gas.