South Africa is on a path of dramatically increasing its energy supplying capabilties. Eskom (the main utility supplying electricity to the national grid) recently announced that future power station technologies will focus on renewable energy and nuclear power. This is done in an effort to reduce South Africa’s dependance on burning fossil-fuels and thereby decreasing CO2 emissions and other harmful gases. This, together with the fact that there are a lot of fresh water scarce areas especially along the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa, is what inspired this study. This study investigates the use of a 200 MWth High Temperature Reactor (HTR) for cogeneration purposes. Heat from the reactor is utilised for electricity generation (Rankine cycle) and process heat (desalination). Two desalination concepts were evaluated thermodynamically and economically, namely Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) and Reverse Osmosis (RO). Computer software, Engineering Equation Solver (EES), was used to simulate different cycle configurations, where the heat available in the condenser was increased successively. The coupling of the two desalination technologies with a HTR was compared and it was found that a RO plant produces nearly twice as much water while sending the same amount of electricity to the grid (compared to coupling with MED). Coupling options were investigated and each simulation model was optimised to deliver maximum output (power and water). The best configuration was found to be the coupling of a HTR with a RO plant producing 86.56 MW generator power. This is equal to 2077 MWh/day. Using 332 MWh/day for desalination through RO, delivers 73 833 m3/day fresh water and results in 1745 MWh/day sent to the grid. This scenario is the best option from a thermodynamic and economic point of view. From an investment point of view, it will produce an Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of 10.9 percent and the Net Present Value (NPV) is calculated to be R 2,486,958,689. The results and analysis for the different cycle configurations are presented in such a way that an easy comparison can be made. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Nuclear Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011

South Africa is on a path of dramatically increasing its energy supplying capabilties. Eskom (the main utility supplying electricity to the national grid) recently announced that future power station technologies will focus on renewable energy and nuclear power. This is done in an effort to reduce South Africa’s dependance on burning fossil-fuels and thereby decreasing CO2 emissions and other harmful gases. This, together with the fact that there are a lot of fresh water scarce areas especially along the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa, is what inspired this study. This study investigates the use of a 200 MWth High Temperature Reactor (HTR) for cogeneration purposes. Heat from the reactor is utilised for electricity generation (Rankine cycle) and process heat (desalination). Two desalination concepts were evaluated thermodynamically and economically, namely Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) and Reverse Osmosis (RO). Computer software, Engineering Equation Solver (EES), was used to simulate different cycle configurations, where the heat available in the condenser was increased successively. The coupling of the two desalination technologies with a HTR was compared and it was found that a RO plant produces nearly twice as much water while sending the same amount of electricity to the grid (compared to coupling with MED). Coupling options were investigated and each simulation model was optimised to deliver maximum output (power and water). The best configuration was found to be the coupling of a HTR with a RO plant producing 86.56 MW generator power. This is equal to 2077 MWh/day. Using 332 MWh/day for desalination through RO, delivers 73 833 m3/day fresh water and results in 1745 MWh/day sent to the grid. This scenario is the best option from a thermodynamic and economic point of view. From an investment point of view, it will produce an Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of 10.9 percent and the Net Present Value (NPV) is calculated to be R 2,486,958,689. The results and analysis for the different cycle configurations are presented in such a way that an easy comparison can be made. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Nuclear Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011

Water is life for all living organisms on earth, and all human beings need water for every socio-economic activity in their daily lives. However, constant challenges are faced in securing quality water resources due to environmental pollution, a growing demand, and climate changes. To overcome imminent worldwide challenges on water resources, desalination of seawater and saline wastewater became inevitable, and significant efforts have been deployed by the desalination research community to advance the technology. However, there is still a gap to take it to a higher sustainability and compatibility compared to conventional water treatment technologies. Among all efforts, the hybridization of two or more processes stands among the promising solutions for sustainable desalination, which synergizes benefits of multiple technologies. To evaluate the sustainability of hybrid desalination technologies, two different systems, namely; (i) multi-effect distillation – adsorption (MED-AD) and (ii) forward osmosis – membrane distillation (FO-MD), are investigated in this study. The method developed for the analysis of primary energy consumption in complex desalination systems is used to evaluate the performance of the MED-AD pilot facility at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST). Results of the MED-AD pilot operation showed an improvement in water production with a higher energy efficiency under the same operating conditions (near the ambient temperature with the solar thermal system). For the FO-MD hybrid system, an investigation is carried out on a novel in-house integrated module and a comparative analysis with the conventional module is provided. An isolation barrier carefully placed in the novel design enhanced the hybrid performance by reducing both concentration and temperature polarization. In addition, the FO-MD hybrid process is evaluated for brine reclamation application in a SWRO-MD-FO system. The sustainability of the proposed system and the potential of a flexible sustainable operation are presented with the experimental study with real seawater and brine from the full-scale desalination plant.

Yes / Owing to the high specific energy consumption associated with thermal desalination technologies such as Multi Effect Distillation (MED), there is a wide interest to develop a cost-effective desalination technology. This study focuses on improving the operational, economic, and environmental perspectives of hybrid MED-TVC (thermal vapour compression) process via optimisation. Application of particle swarm optimisation (PSO) in several engineering disciplines have been noted but its potential has not been exploited fully in desalination technologies especially MED-TVC in the past. A multi-objective non-linear optimisation framework based on PSO is constructed here. Two of our earlier models have been used to predict the key process performance and cost indicators. The models are embedded within the PSO optimisation algorithm to develop a new hybrid optimisation model which minimises the total freshwater production cost, total specific energy consumption and brine flow rate while maintaining a fixed freshwater production for a given number of effects and seawater conditions. The steam flow rate and temperature are considered as control variables of the optimisation problem to achieve the objective function. The PSO has successfully achieved the optimum indexes for the hybrid MED-TVC process for a wide range of number of effects. It also shows a maximum reduction of freshwater production cost by 36.5%, a maximum energy saving by 32.1% and a maximum reduction of brine flow rate by 38.3%, while maintaining the productivity of freshwater.

A need was identified for a set of basic design tools for Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) plant evaporators. This led to an investigation into the different types of evaporators as well as further research on horizontal falling film evaporators as used in the MED process. It also included the theory on these types of evaporators. In order not to duplicate existing design tools, an investigation was also performed on some of the tools that are currently available. The first set of tools that were developed were tools, programmed in EES (Engineering Equation Solver), for the vacuum system and the evaporator. These programs can be used to simulate different parameters (like different mass flows and temperatures). That enables the correct selection of components for the vacuum system and can be used to address sizing issues around the evaporator. It can also be used to plan the layout of the plant. The second of the design tools was developed by designing and building a flow pattern test section. From the flow pattern test section a set of curves for the wetted length under different conditions was obtained which can be used in order to design the sieve tray. This set of curves was found to be accurate for municipal as well as seawater and can be used in the design of the sieve tray of the evaporator. Further development can be done by implementing the figures of the wetted length into a simulation package like, for example, Flownex (a system CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) code that enables users to perform detail design, analysis and optimization of a wide range of thermal-fluid systems). The background gained from the study done on the evaporator can also be implemented into such a package. This could solve the problem of different design packages by creating a single design package with all of the above mentioned options included. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Nuclear Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

A need was identified for a set of basic design tools for Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) plant evaporators. This led to an investigation into the different types of evaporators as well as further research on horizontal falling film evaporators as used in the MED process. It also included the theory on these types of evaporators. In order not to duplicate existing design tools, an investigation was also performed on some of the tools that are currently available. The first set of tools that were developed were tools, programmed in EES (Engineering Equation Solver), for the vacuum system and the evaporator. These programs can be used to simulate different parameters (like different mass flows and temperatures). That enables the correct selection of components for the vacuum system and can be used to address sizing issues around the evaporator. It can also be used to plan the layout of the plant. The second of the design tools was developed by designing and building a flow pattern test section. From the flow pattern test section a set of curves for the wetted length under different conditions was obtained which can be used in order to design the sieve tray. This set of curves was found to be accurate for municipal as well as seawater and can be used in the design of the sieve tray of the evaporator. Further development can be done by implementing the figures of the wetted length into a simulation package like, for example, Flownex (a system CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) code that enables users to perform detail design, analysis and optimization of a wide range of thermal-fluid systems). The background gained from the study done on the evaporator can also be implemented into such a package. This could solve the problem of different design packages by creating a single design package with all of the above mentioned options included. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Nuclear Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

No description available.

Yes / Solar energy, amongst all renewable energies, has attracted inexhaustible attention all over the world as a supplier of sustainable energy. The energy requirement of major seawater desalination processes such as multistage flash (MSF), multi-effect distillation (MED) and reverse osmosis (RO) are fulfilled by burning fossil fuels, which impact the environment significantly due to the emission of greenhouse gases. The integration of solar energy systems into seawater desalination processes is an attractive and alternative solution to fossil fuels. This study aims to (i) assess the progress of solar energy systems including concentrated solar power (CSP) and photovoltaic (PV) to power both thermal and membrane seawater desalination processes including MSF, MED, and RO and (ii) evaluate the economic considerations and associated challenges with recommendations for further improvements. Thus, several studies on a different combination of seawater desalination processes of solar energy systems are reviewed and analysed concerning specific energy consumption and freshwater production cost. It is observed that although solar energy systems have the potential of reducing carbon footprint significantly, the cost of water production still favours the use of fossil fuels. Further research and development on solar energy systems are required to make their use in desalination economically viable. Alternatively, the carbon tax on the use of fossil fuels may persuade desalination industries to adopt renewable energy such as solar.

The fast growth in the demand of freshwater due to the scarcity of natural water and increase in the world population puts more stress on the desalination sectors, which requires the installation of high-efficient thermal desalination plants. Among these desalination plants, multi effect desalination (MED) and RO processes are considered as the most reliable techniques of producing freshwater from saline water. Recently, the MED and RO process have been introduced in hybrid systems. However, this includes the development of simple superstructures of the hybrid system in spite of the improvement made beyond the individual process. To overcome this challenge, this dissertation comes to fill this gap and investigates appropriate methods of optimising the operational parameters of the hybrid system. In this regard, several innovative ideas are demonstrated for the first time to enhance the MED process, which are specifically include the improvement of key performance indicators including water production cost via a repetitive simulation based model. In line of this, the investigation of the lowest water production cost for different numbers of effects of MED system is carried out via optimisation based model. To deploy a sustainable source of energy, this research illustrates the combined system of MED-TVC and wind turbine with attaining a considerable reduction of specific energy consumption. Also, this research presents two novel designs of hybrid system of MED and single and double RO processes of different configurations that contain permeate reprocessing design and retentate reprocessing design of RO process. These layouts demonstrate a considerable reduction of total energy consumption within an accepted product salinity compared to the ones presented in the open literature. To apply the energy-water concept for a smart city, this research emphasises on the design moderation and process optimisation of the MED-TVC and double RO processes to generate different grades of water. Moreover, the structure of this dissertation introduces a revision of the steady state MED and RO modelling. This in turn provides an efficient hybrid system for seawater desalination by refining the reliability and efficiency of the associated process. The results stated the following findings; It can be stated that 17 effects of MED-TVC system is suitable to achieve the lowest fresh water production cost of 0.614 $/m3. However, the implication of particle swarm optimisation method has further introduced the freshwater production cost from 0.614 $/m3 to 0.432 $/m3 by investigating the optimal operating conditions for the 17 effects. Also, this research introduces that Dhahran is more potential compared to Jeddah in the KSA to construct an integration system of MED-TVC and a renewable energy source of wind turbine that presents the lowest specific energy consumption. This research also shows that the new proposed design of MED-TVC and single permeate reprocessing RO processes has a lower energy consumption of around 2.2% if compared to other configurations suggested in the open literature. Further reduction of this energy consumption has been conducted after optimising the inlet conditions of the hybrid system of MED-TVC and permeate reprocessing RO processes. The novel design of double RO and MED-TVC introduces an improvement of water productivity of 9%, corresponding to a reduction of brine flowrate within 5% compared to the base case of permeate reprocessing RO (PRRO) and MED-TVC. Finally, this research presents the improvement of different scenarios of MED-TVC and double RO processes to quantify the production of different types of water with fulfilling the environmental concepts.

The ability to produce potable water economically is the primary focus of seawater desalination research. There are numerous methods to desalinate water, including reverse osmosis, multi-stage flash distillation, and multi-effect evaporation. These methods cost more than potable water produced from natural resources; hence an attempt is made in this research project to produce potable water using a modified high-efficiency jet ejector in vapor-compression distillation. The greater efficiency of the jet ejector is achieved by properly mixing propelled and motive streams. From experiments conducted using air, the pressure rise across the jet ejector is better in case of one or two mixing vanes and the highest back pressure (pinch valve closed 83.33%). At other pinch valve closings, the air velocity through the jet ejector was high, so the extra surface area from the mixing vanes caused excessive friction and lowered the efficiency.