Thesis (M.Sc. (Agriculture)) --University of Limpopo (Turfloop Campus), 2008 / A large number of emerging farmers in South Africa is involved in subsistence agriculture as a result of poor resource endowment or due to other constraints. Relatively few agricultural products from emerging farmers reach the formal agricultural market. Livestock production is common among emerging farmers and a large proportion of the national livestock is in the hands of the rural poor. Horticultural crops are generally perishable and require immediate disposal, thus implying that the farmers who produce horticultural crops do so with intention to sell their products. Most studies tend to group farmers regardless of their line of production. Only few studies have attempted to investigate the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers, differentiating the commodities that they produce. The objective of this study is to identify and compare the socioeconomic characteristics that determine the farm income of the emerging livestock farmers and horticultural farmers in South Africa. Such an analysis would allow more targeted policy responses for different groups of emerging farmers. The data used in this study consisted of 202 livestock farmers and 126 horticultural farmers selected through quota sample covering all nine provinces in South Africa. The data were collected by the Development Bank of Southern Africa in 2005. Descriptive Analysis and Discriminant Analysis are applied to determine the factors that matter the most in determining incomes of livestock and horticultural farmers. Farm iv income is used as the dependent variable, and fourteen independent variables were identified. The factors that matter the most in determining livestock farmers’ income are, namely access to finance, farm size, age of the household head, membership to farmer organizations and government support. The factors that matter most in determining horticultural farmer’s income are namely farm size, age of the household head, land type (land ownership), and extension services. The results of this study showed that access to land and age of the household head matter the most to both livestock and horticultural farmers. The study found that poor access to land is one of the major constraints facing emerging farmers in South Africa. Land is also one of the factors that may determine the amount of credit the emerging farmers can obtain and, if farmers produce on communal land, it becomes harder to obtain credit. Memberships to farmer’s organisations, government support and access to finance are characteristics that matter the most to livestock and do not seem to matter that much to horticultural farmers. Farmer organisations often lobby for collective provision of appropriate and needed services for their membership. The services that are often lobbied for are services such as extension, marketing and provision of training to empower women and young people so as to enable them to participate fully in farming activities. The results of this study show that there are differences in socio-economic characteristics that matter the most in determining farm income for livestock and horticulture farmers. v Horticulture farmers should be given much support to improve access to get enough land and training while in livestock farming assistance focus should be on access to finance and support services. vi

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2011 / Food security in most drought-stricken areas of Limpopo Province is a challenge to the Department of Agriculture and to all the people living in the province, especially to the resource poor smallholder farmers. Finding remedial solutions to agricultural production in stress prone conditions is therefore a high priority. The introduction of Challenge Programme Water for Food (CPWF) technologies/techniques to smallholder dry land farming in Greater Giyani Municipality was seen as one of the solutions. However, there are constraints raised by CPWF technology adopters such as shortage of labour, lack of ploughing equipment, lack of credit, shortage of land and marketing. CPWF technologies are suitable for smallholder dry land farming, especially rainwater harvesting technologies. Smallholder farmers need to be remobilised and trained on the potential benefits of CPWF technologies to enhance their adoption and spread to other areas.

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2013 / This research project unfolds within the Shigalo wa Muhunguti Communal Property Association farms at Tshitungulu, (Levubu) area, under Makhado Municipality in Vhembe District of the Limpopo Province, with the purposes to evaluating the sustainability of that Land Restituted farming project. This is a case study research project where both the qualitative and the quantitative research strategies were used. Data was collected through structured and semi-structured interviews. The analysis reveals that while the Land Reform programme has managed to restore land rights to the legitimate owners, the sustainability and continued productivity of such properties in the hands of the new owners remains a cause for major concern. The findings reveal among other things the low literacy level, lack of farming skills, low interest and passion for farming, and high level of dissatisfaction of employees. Poor marketing of produce is also a cause for great concern. Recommendations to address the above findings suggest that the Department of Agriculture should implement massive training programmes on beneficiaries, young farmers should be exposed to modern production system, regular meetings with employees could reduce their dissatisfaction, while the executive members could undergo vigorous training to get marketing skills to negotiate the sale of their produce.

Agriculture and commerce activities make up a significant part of Paraguay’s economy. The success of these sectors is important for Paraguay’s continued development in rural areas where agriculture activities are most prevalent and nonagriculture activities are increasing in demand. Current literature indicates many factors that contribute to success in both business and farming operations; however, little information is available regarding the perception of young entrepreneurs and farmers. Paraguay’s young population will need more employment opportunities, many of which may come from new start-up operations. The purpose of this study was to identify attributes and perceptions that affect perceived barriers to business and farming operations in rural areas of Paraguay. This study examined young would-be entrepreneurs and agricultural producers participating in entrepreneurial courses and agribusiness leadership workshops, respectively. Two surveys (small-business and small-farm) were administered to the respective groups. Respondents were asked to share their perceptions of common business factors that might or might not contribute to small-enterprise success, along with demographic and characteristic questions. Results of mean test-statistic comparison show that some significant differences exist between the two groups. Some of the most notable differences were larger average family size in the small-farm group, more female participation in the small-business group, a greater average of secondary and postsecondary education in the small-business group, and more respondents reporting more past-experience in the small-farm group. Combining both survey observations and analyzing them with ordered logit models, results suggest that education, training, and past-experience hold a negative correlation with perceived barriers-to-entry to business and farm operations. As education and experience increase, perceptions of barrier factors decrease. This analysis also finds that people who are employed in the private sector are more likely to perceive capital as a barrier-to-entry; whereas land and access to property is more likely to be viewed as a larger hurdle in the agriculture sector. Educating, training and providing experience to young would-be entrepreneurs and farm operators will improve perceptions of business entry. Future research might include perceptions of current government and nonprofit organization programs and initiatives, to better analyze the effectiveness of such rural development efforts.

Sea-bed benthic-invertebrate assemblages of species within and proximal to an existing mussel farm off Taniwhanui Point, eastern Waiheke Island, are reported. Substratum type, whether predominantly mud, gravels or an admixture of the two, mud/gravels, is shown to influence infaunal species assemblage composition; the bivalve Theora lubrica, ostracods, amphipods and polychaetes characterise muddy substrata; polychaetes, particularly spionids and syllids, ostracods, amphipods, bivalves and ophiuroids characterise mud/gravel substrata; and diverse assemblages of polychaetes, bivalves, pagurid crabs, gastropods, ostracods, ophiuroids and nemertean worms characterise gravel substrata. Significant differences in sea-bed assemblages are reported along one transect inside and outside the farm over the three seasons during which surveys were conducted, summer, autumn, winter of 2008. Along the northern side of the mussel farm those sediments beneath the farm are characterised by greater abundances of polychaetes and crustaceans (Malacostraca), whereas sediments outside the farm are characterised by greater abundances of bivalves and ostracods. Sediments both inside and outside the north-eastern border of the farm during summer are characterised by similar abundances of polychaetes, bivalves and ostracods. Similarly, those sediments within and outside the farm along its southern border during summer are characterised by abundances of polychaetes, bivalves, crustaceans (Malacostraca) and gastropods. Measures of relative abundance, rarity and species richness are applied to sea-bed assemblages off eastern Waiheke Island to enable an appraisal of the spatial distribution of each within and outside the farm, and throughout the eastern Waiheke Island region. One of these measures, relative abundance, is then compared with other, albeit limited abundance data from previous soft-sediment surveys conducted throughout Hauraki Gulf. The most species rich and abundant sites off eastern Waiheke Island occur in gravelly substrata between Waiheke Island and Pakatoa Island, and between Rotoroa and Ponui Islands, in addition to beneath the southern portion of the existing mussel farm. Gravel-based substrata are recognised to be the most species rich and densely populated with invertebrates for this sediment type in Hauraki Gulf. Similarly, the muddy substrata off eastern Waiheke Island region appear to host more individuals and species than any other reported muddy substratum in Hauraki Gulf. The existing mussel farm is shown to significantly affect sea-bed communities, but in a manner that has not been previously reported in New Zealand. Species richness and abundance are greater beneath the farm, as are the proportions of very rare and uncommon taxa to more common and ubiquitous taxa. Sediments beneath the farm are not characterised by elevated abundances and richness of opportunistic species; and no obvious difference in sediment grain size is apparent along a transect extending from 20 m inside the farm to at least 110 m outside it. The biological footprint of the farm is limited, appearing to extend no further than 20 metres from the northern physical boundary of the farm; the gross sedimentary characteristics (grain size) do not differ significantly within and outside the farm. Within and immediately outside the farm species richness and abundance tend to increase during colder seasons; beneath the farm, species richness (d), abundance (N), Shannon index (H’) and Simpson index (1-λ’) were higher during May (autumn) and August (winter) than during February (summer); diversity values outside the farm were similar during summer and autumn, but species richness (d), evenness (J’), Shannon index (H’) and Simpson index (1-λ’) were all greater during winter. No opportunistic taxa are considered to be appropriate indicators of organically enriched environments, at least enrichment that can be intuitively linked to any direct effect of the existing mussel farm. One species, the heart urchin Echinocardium cordatum, only rarely occurs inside the physical farm boundary, so its relative abundance renders it an appropriate indicator species of mussel-farm impacts.

Ever since 1976, livestock farmers in Fiji have been intrigued about biogas digesters as an animal waste management measure, but the concept has never evolved into one that is sustainable. Renewed interest came in 1997 after a better Chinese Modified Dome (CMD) design was established, with this came government funding, however by 2002, some failure was also observed. This study set out to investigate the reasons why biogas digesters have never been established as a sustainable concept, its effectiveness as an animal waste management tool and what changes if any, can be made to try and influence the further development of the concept in Fiji. In order to achieve the objectives, which were simply obtaining the answers to the questions presented above, several different approaches had to be followed. This study was the first on biogas digesters in Fiji and it was unique in the sense that the major component dealt with the social aspects of farmers in relation to their biogas digesters. Basically the study was carried out in two parts - desktop studies and field studies. Desktop studies were done to better understand the situation while the field studies included semi-structured interviews with the farmers as well as the collection of biophysical data. Twelve outcomes are presented in chapter 7 of this paper. Two in particular are the improvement of construction and maintenance, which can only come about through training. The research questions are also answered in chapter 7, with recommendations put forward on possible directions to take in terms of trying to influence the development of the concept in Fiji / Master of Science (Hons)

1. It is now generally accepted that conservation is an important consideration for developing countries. (l. 1 & 1.2) 2. This has been made clear in the World Conservation Strategy, published in 1980, which sets out the essential link between conservation and development. Three conservation objectives are identified: - Maintenance of essential ecological processes - Preservation of genetic diversity - Ensuring sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems (1.3) 3. Foreign aid donors have recognised the importance of conservation considerations in their aid programs. The World Bank has had an environmental program since 1970 and USAID since 1975. The emphasis has shifted from the environmental impact of projects towards projects intended to bring conservation benefits. Interest has recently been directed toward biological diversity and wildlands. (1.4) 4. Although Australia has significant expertise in conservation, only in the last couple of years has interest in the conservation aspects of Australia's development assistance program been expressed. Australian support for the World conservation Strategy indicates that conservation concerns should be included in the aid program. (1.5) 5. Conservation and environmental assessment should be an integral part of the processes of project appraisal and evaluation. The techniques used in appraisal and evaluation such as the logical framework and cost benefit analysis can be linked to environmental assessment, (chapter 2) 6. Many environmental guidelines are available, however these should not be used directly for project appraisal and evaluation but rather to assist in the preparation of project specific terms of reference. (2.6) The intensification of some farming systems damages the ecological processes on which they depend and hence reduces productivity. Other farming systems can be intensified without ecological damage. The challenge is to ensure that when farming is to be intensified it can be done without adverse ecological consequences. (3.1, 3.2) 8. Constraints on the adoption of sustainable farming systems include the perceptions, attitudes and knowledge of the society affected, economic limitations and problems of land tenure. (3.3) 9. Foreign aid donors can make a contribution towards establishing sustainable farming systems but past project designs have often not been well suited to conservation. (3.4) 10. Projects can be developed with conservation goals which will conserve the land, improve subsistence farming and assist with economic production. There are three stages in these projects: - Identify the causes of land degradation and the constraints to countering them. - Develop and demonstrate appropriate farming systems - Extension (3.5) 11. A project is likely to have a greater impact if it leads to the adoption of appropriate conservation techniques over a region than if it intensively improves a restricted project area. A project must therefore seek to develop techniques which will be adopted without subsidy. (3.4, 3.5) 12. The Australian projects in northern Thailand have successfully demonstrated farming systems which would reduce erosion but these have yet to be adopted on a significant scale by the population in the region. (4.2) 13. The NTT Livestock Development Project in Timor has not yet had sufficient time to demonstrate suitable farming systems but it is expected that such systems can be developed. (4.3) 14. In Sikka, Flores, Indonesia, the widespread planting of contour hedgerows of leucaena has brought substantial conservation benefits. The key factors in the adoption of this practice appear to have been that the technique was readily undertaken by fanners, it increases crop yields and that there was strong support from the local administration. (4.3) 15. It should be possible to introduce conservation farming systems to a region in a period of about ten years. If success is to be achieved it is essential that practices be capable of being adopted without subsidy, that the introduction get strong support from the local administration and that there be a vigorous extension campaign. 16. It is recommended that: - Australia should have an explicit policy on conservation and development assistance based on our commitment to the World Conservation Strategy. (5.l) - ADAB should have its focus of conservation within the appraisals and evaluations area.(5.2) ADAB should incorporate conservation considerations throughout the project cycle. (5.3) - The cost benefit guidelines provided by ADAB should be amended to include conservation considerations. (5.4) - ADAB should support and encourage conservation projects and should seek to develop projects which will have a conservation impact throughout the relevant region. (5.5) - ADAB should cooperate with other agencies in its activities on conservation and development. In particular we should play an active role in OECD activities relating to environment and development. (5.6)

The National Farmers Federation (NFF) is a peak producer organisation. Its executive has purported to represent all Australian farmers with a unified voice. This thesis argues that primary producers are too heterogeneous a group ever to have developed much solidarity in articulation of or action for the furtherance of common interests and that this fact is reflected in the NFF. Heterogeneity results from farm size, product specialisation, level of technology adopted, geographical location and special needs. Successive farm organisations and the National Party (and predecessors) have attempted to encompass these differences since the 1890s. Producer differences either have led to secession or to unification when political and economic circumstances have warranted it. This diversity has prevented farm groups becoming united. The lack of unity at first prevented all farmers joining in one organisation, and when they did, they kept on splitting up. The charisma of Ian McLachlan allowed farmers to get together, but the diversity meant that the getting together benefited some not only without the others, but sometimes at the expense of others. This thesis explores the heterogeneity of the agricultural sector within the political and economic context of Australian agriculture and discusses its consequences, in the constant re-forming of farm organisations and the institutional framework of the NFF in the context of politicisation of agricultural interest groups. This thesis concludes that producer differences in terms of size and product specialisation determine how effectively they are represented. Corporate farmers have fared much better than family and family-plus farmers, who would probably be better represented by a small business organisation, with which they have more in common, rather than a farming organisation.

Bibliography: p. 283-313. / xxxii, 313 p. : ill. (chiefly col.) ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Two systems of dryland cropping, one conventional and one conservation, were studied on the same farm over a period of 10 and 14 years respectively. The conventional cropping system was based on cultivated fallow which served to manage and conserve water, nitrified organic matter and controlled weeds. Stubble was burnt prior to cultivation for the fallow phase, with pasture and cropping phases rotated. The conservation farming system was based on the absence of soil tillage, stubble retention, rotation of a variety of crops and chemical control of weeds. Water conservation was achieved through increased infiltration by improved soil structure, avoidance of compaction, reduced water runoff and reduced evaporation by stubble retention. Overall, the conventional farming system was proven to be unsustainable. The conservation system was sustainable in terms of productivity, profitability and effect on the environmental resources of soil and water. The growing of sorghum as a summer grass in the Wimmera was also found to be an opportunity for improving productivity, profitability and sustainability by controlling winter weeds. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Agronomy and Farming Systems, 1998

Bibliography: p. 283-313. Two systems of dryland cropping, one conventional and one conservation, were studied on the same farm over a period of 10 and 14 years respectively. The conventional cropping system was based on cultivated fallow which served to manage and conserve water, nitrified organic matter and controlled weeds. Stubble was burnt prior to cultivation for the fallow phase, with pasture and cropping phases rotated. The conservation farming system was based on the absence of soil tillage, stubble retention, rotation of a variety of crops and chemical control of weeds. Water conservation was achieved through increased infiltration by improved soil structure, avoidance of compaction, reduced water runoff and reduced evaporation by stubble retention. Overall, the conventional farming system was proven to be unsustainable. The conservation system was sustainable in terms of productivity, profitability and effect on the environmental resources of soil and water. The growing of sorghum as a summer grass in the Wimmera was also found to be an opportunity for improving productivity, profitability and sustainability by controlling winter weeds.