The Italian labour market seems unable to allocate a significant fraction of the working age population efficiently. The gap between the employment rate in Italy and in the other developed economies is foremost attributable to the low employment rates of youth, seniors and women. The low employment rates of these three groups are due to several factors limiting both labour demand and labour supply. For women in particular, constraints on the allocation of time play a crucial role in determining labour supply behaviour. In this thesis we try to understand how non-standard time constraints may affect the behaviour of women, and their labour supply in particular. In the first chapter we study how the constraints on work-schedules affect the time allocation of workers in Italy. For a large fraction of employed individuals the work schedule is very rigid, as a consequence of outdated industrial relations. In order to understand whether constraints on the work-schedule produce significant effects on the allocation of time of wage/salary workers in Italy, we exploit the intrinsic differences between them and self employed workers. In fact, one of the main features of self-employment is the greater control over the days worked and daily hours of work. We use the last wave of the Italian time use survey (2008-2009) to provide evidence that the distribution of hours of work of self-employed workers is much more dispersed than that of wage/salary workers and that average standard deviation of their daily minutes of work within a week is significantly larger. Then we show that self-employed workers respond more to shocks affecting the value of leisure. We show that on sunny days the increase of leisure and the reduction of work are significantly larger for self-employed workers. We address whether unobservable characteristics, such as preferences for leisure and for outdoor activities in particular, determine this differential response and find no evidence for this. We interpret the differential response to weather shocks as a consequence of the time constraints on work-schedules. This evidence is relevant for female labour force participation since in Italy a large fraction of women choose not to work because they would otherwise not be able to reconcile family and work responsibilities. In the second chapter we study the Added Worker Effect (AWE). The retrospective questions provided by the new labour force survey allow identification of transitions between labour market states in a 12 month time-window. Since we are able to identify the reason for the husband’s job loss, we distinguish between transitions associated with low or high income losses. We find that both the wife’s probability of joining the labour force and that of finding a job increase when the husband is dismissed or he is forced to quit his job for health reasons, two cases of usually high income losses. Moreover, we estimate the wife’s full transition matrix between labour market states and we find that the loss of a job by a husband increases the probability that his wife will enter the iv labour force. Finally, we provide some descriptive evidence that time constraints can also impact the magnitude of the AWE. Focusing on mothers with young children, we show that the estimated AWE is positively correlated with the regional provision of child care services. The third chapter is based on the time use files of the Canadian General Social Survey. We study how Sunday shopping deregulation changed the time allocation of women, with a particular focus on those with children. The empirical analysis relies on the provincial variation in the time of the policy change. Our results suggest that women with children, who usually face stringent time constraints, respond to the policy change by substituting weekday shopping with Sunday shopping. The amount of time these women save from doing shopping on weekdays allows them to increase their minutes of work. On Sunday, shopping increases at the expense of leisure. The main result of this chapter is that the labour supply of mothers may change even when non-obvious constraints on the allocation of time change.

Heterosis, the phenotypic superiority of first generation progeny over that of its inbred parents, has been extensively investigated. However, differences in the phenology and dynamic growth patterns between parents and offspring provide challenges in understanding causal factors behind superior trait values. For maize, manipulation of heterosis to increase grain yield has been of primary importance, and the number of spikelets that develop on the female inflorescence is the primary determinant of grain yield. The initial experiment examined heterosis in genetic backgrounds that led to minimal differences in phenology and plant architecture. Growth curves were used to characterize the dynamic expression of heterosis between the hybrid and the inbred parents for a series of vegetative and reproductive traits across stages of development. The second experiment was conducted to determine the effects that stress due to planting density might have on the number of properly developed spikelets, as the first experiment, along with results from the literature, provided evidence to suggest that a proportion of the later forming spikelets found on the distal portion of the female inflorescence were not capable of producing kernels. Results from the initial experiment suggested that expression of heterosis for individual characteristics – such as fresh weight, whose percent mid-parent heterosis was 82% at V4 and declined steadily to 17% at V11 – begins at a high level and decreased during development. On a whole plant level – as determined by a combined analysis of the values and growth rates of the individual characteristics – heterosis increases throughout development until it reaches a steady-state level. Results from the second experiment indicated that increasing plant density did not affect the total number of spikelets per ear but decreased the number of kernels per ear, and it was found that the number of properly developed spikelets per ear was equal to the number of kernels per ear in eight of the nine genotypes tested. Optimal growth stages for more in-depth investigation of transcriptomic changes that may identify causal genetic factors of heterosis for yield were not found, and stress increases the proportion of improperly developed spikelets causing a loss in kernel number. / Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Canadian Foundation for Innovation, and Ontario Innovative Trust

In sports like gymnastics and figure skating where peak performance occurs before physical maturation it logically follows that athletes need to be dedicated to their athletic development at a young age if elite performance is to be attained. However, countless studies have reported that early specialization in a single sport exposes youth to elevated risks of negative physical, psychological or emotional outcomes associated with sport participation (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007). As such, it is important that we develop an understanding of the contextual factors or features of specialized youth sport environment(s) that are having positive impacts on youth growth, development and long-term commitment to sport. By harnessing an understanding of the features of specialized youth sport environments that positively contribute to the youth sport experience, we will be better equipped to mitigate the increased risk of negative outcomes in these environments. Using the National Research Council Institute of Medicine’s (2002) eight setting features as a framework, the general goal of the current study was to explore the specialized youth sport environment as it is experienced by young athletes. Photo-elicitation was used to conduct interviews with 15 female athletes between the ages of 8 and 13 who primarily participated in one sport for 12 or more hours per week, for at least 9 months of the year. Two over-arching dimensions of the specialized youth sport experience emerged from the themes generated by the interviews: program design and interaction. Program design represents six themes underpinning the program’s inherent structure and organization: personal performance emphasis, consistent training structure, adaptable practice activities, rule guided engagement, appropriate equipment set-up and maintenance, and supervision by one or more adults. The interaction dimension represents six themes that emerged as a result of relationships with key social agents (e.g., parents, coaches, peers, community) of the sport environment: tangible support, informational support, emotional support, cultivation of camaraderie, achievement recognition, and opportunities for autonomy. These findings add to the literature as they provide a first step in understanding the specialized youth sport environment from the athlete’s eyes. That is, they not only help us understand the elements of the youth sport environment that youth perceive as important, but they also provide us with a working framework of the key features that are likely to contribute to positive outcomes in specialized sport environments. / Thesis (Master, Kinesiology & Health Studies) -- Queen's University, 2011-10-11 21:50:33.779

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The study aims to probe the perceptions and experiences of using female condoms for women living in Durban. The study probes these perceptions and experiences within the embedded socio-cultural and gendered dynamics that influence, not only the perception and understanding of the female condom, but their gendered use as well. The study was premised on the understanding that female condoms or FCs are a ‘female initiated’ prevention method in preventing unplanned pregnancy, and most importantly in protecting against, STIs and HIV/AIDS. The study also assumed that, given the feminized face of the AIDS pandemic, FCs could potentially be an empowering contraceptive tool, with which women can exercise control over their own bodies and some control within their sexual relationships; negotiating safer sex, preventing pregnancy and the transmission of STIs like HIV. Mixed methods were used to collect data, utilising methodological tools such as a questionnaire, focus groups and in-depth interviews. The study included participants from Chatsworth, Durban Central, Inanda, Lamontville, and Wentworth. / Theses (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Female apologetic behaviour in sport includes any behaviour by female athletes that emphasizes a female athlete’s femininity. This behaviour is in response to the masculine and/or lesbian stereotypes associated with female sport participation. This thesis analyzed the female apologetic within Canadian women’s rugby. Attention was paid to the relationship of level of competition, racial identity, sexual orientation and socioeconomic status with female apologetic behaviours. In-depth interviews with nine Canadian, female rugby players from various levels of competition, races and sexual orientations were conducted to explore these negotiations. Judith Butler’s idea of gender performativity was used as a research lens. The participants stated that they did not currently engage in any apologetic behaviour, and it was found that level of rugby, race, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status did not impact female apologetic behaviours. Rugby was found to be a safe place for the participants to perform resistant versions of femininity.

Ornamental traits in male birds have been the subject of much research effort, and sexual selection is recognized as the leading explanation for their evolution. The expression of ornamental traits in females has received little study until recent decades. Female colouration has been considered a non-adaptive, correlated response to selection on males. However, models predict that male mate choice, female competition, and the evolution of honest signals could help explain female ornamentation, especially where male investment in offspring and variation in female quality are high. I investigated this in the American robin (Turdus migratorius), a socially monogamous species with bi-parental care and variable female ornamentation. Female robins display conspicuous red breast plumage, bright yellow bills, and achromatic ornamentation. Female ornamentation is similar to males, but is subdued to varying degrees across individuals. Female colouration could function as a useful criterion in mate selection by males if it is correlated with aspects of female quality important to producing viable offspring. I assessed whether female ornamentation in robins might act as an honest signal by relating variation in female colour to measures of individual quality and reproductive investment. To assess ornamentation, I took colour measurements of the bill, crown and breast of male and female robins in the field using reflectance spectrometry. Female bill, breast and crown traits reliably predicted age, crown and bill colour traits were related to better body condition, and bill colour decreased seasonally as well as with ectoparasite load. I found evidence of assortative mating based on crown UV reflectance and bill colour. To assess reproductive investment, I measured egg size, yolk proportion, and deposition of yolk testosterone and carotenoids. Females with brighter (lighter) carotenoid-based bill colour laid larger eggs, and females with yellower bills laid eggs with higher yolk proportions and more total yolk carotenoids. Yolk testosterone level was associated with redder female breasts. These results support the hypothesis that female colour may be a reliable indicator of individual quality and capacity for reproductive investment. / Thesis (Master, Biology) -- Queen's University, 2014-01-30 15:09:57.797

Recent literature finds that in OECD countries the cross- country correlation between the total fertility rate and the female labor force participation rate has changed from negative till the mid-1980s to positive afterwards. In sharp contrast, other studies show that this negative relationship continues to exist, however the magnitude of the effect is lower. In this paper I look at a panel of 23 OECD aggregate fertility and labor market data from 1965 – 2013 and account for country as well as year fixed effects. My findings document that there exists a negative relationship between fertility and female employment for the years 1965 – 1985, as there existed a high level of incompatibility between mother and worker roles at that time. After this time period no relationship between fertility and employment exists. The presence of a number of other country and year specific factors affects the level of labor force participation and fertility decisions of a woman. When accounted for, the cross-country time-series association between fertility and female employment seems to fade away and does not exist any longer after the mid-1980s.

Family support, both financial and social, can impact the educational aspirations of youth. Studies have shown gender also plays a role in those educational aspirations. While there has been some research done on the educational aspirations of youth in Appalachia, the research on female youth Appalachia is less explored. This study looks at the educational aspirations of female youth in Appalachia by surveying a group of young women who belong to the Robinson Scholars at the University of Kentucky. Participants completed a brief, one time survey answering questions about the types of social support received and the providers of that support. Preliminarily data supports the literature; in the absence of financial capital, social capital may be used to empower young women. The data also supports the idea that most females are impacted by their mothers’ influence more than other members of their family or community. Conclusions and discussions will include a plan for further research, as well as the implications for educators and students throughout Appalachia.

Women in the Swedish labor market have lower wage than men on average. There are multiple reasons for this gender wage differential. Among other things, processes at the organizational level have been stressed. Some researchers argue that the gender of the manager has an effect on wages and that this effect might differ for men and women. Prior studies have analyzed the potential effect of manager gender on wages, but few empirical studies have scrutinized the question. The studies that exist use the proportion of female versus male managers in the organization as a measure of the effect of manager gender on wages. This paper however offers a direct test of the association of the gender of the immediate manager with men’s and women’s wages. Specifically, two hypotheses were tested: that (i) a female manager is negatively associated with women’s wages (ii) a female manager is negatively associated with men’s wages. To address the hypotheses, the analysis provides OLS regressions (for men and women separately) using survey data from European Social Survey (ESS) 2004 and 2010. The analysis includes theoretically and empirically relevant variables clustered in block of human capital, organizational and individual level variables. The results show that men’s wages are negatively influenced by having a female manager once human capital was adjusted for. There is no evidence that women’s wages are affected by having a female manager, since the share of women in the occupation and in the firm fully explains the negative association between female manager and wages for women. For female respondents, organizational factors seem to be of greater importance for wage determination than the gender of the immediate manager.