Ulm, Univ., Diss., 2009.

Ulm, Univ. Diss., 2006.

Theoretical mechanical benefits of biarticular muscles include reduced displacements and force potentiating shifts in linear velocities during multi-joint coupled motions. A cadaveric model was developed to compute muscle kinematics of biceps femoris (BFL and BFS) during four classes of coupled knee and hip joint motion, as well as running and walking gait (Six subjects, Vicon Motion Analysis). The examples of the classes of motion were: KEHE-jump (knee extension and hip extension), KFHF-tuck (knee flexion and hip flexion), KFHE-kick (knee flexion and hip extension), and KEHF-paw (knee extension and hip flexion). BFL peak and mean velocity shifts relative to BFS were seen in all four coupling classes (p<0.05) and the majority of the gait subclasses (p<0.05). Muscle displacements were larger in BFL for both KFHE-paw and KEHF-kick (p<0.05), smaller in KFHF-tuck (p<0.05), but not significantly different in KEHE-jump or during most of the running gait subclasses, except for during KFHE-late mid stance and KEHF-mid swing, where they were larger for BFL (p<0.05). The mechanical benefits associated with BFL velocity shift relative to BFs were identified in KFHF, KEHF motions, and certain subclasses of gait. In contrast, there were potential mechanical detriments due to velocity shift relative to BFs in the KEHE-jump, KFHE-paw, and the majority of KEHE and KFHE subclasses in both gait cycles. The possible mechanical benefits associated with displacement conservation of BFL relative to BFs would be realized in KFHF-tuck jump, but not during KEHE-jump and the gait cycle subclasses. The findings of this study reveal both mechanical benefits and detriments of biarticular muscles, and have immediate implications for neural control of biarticular muscles during movement.

Theoretical mechanical benefits of biarticular muscles include reduced displacements and force potentiating shifts in linear velocities during multi-joint coupled motions. A cadaveric model was developed to compute muscle kinematics of biceps femoris (BFL and BFS) during four classes of coupled knee and hip joint motion, as well as running and walking gait (Six subjects, Vicon Motion Analysis). The examples of the classes of motion were: KEHE-jump (knee extension and hip extension), KFHF-tuck (knee flexion and hip flexion), KFHE-kick (knee flexion and hip extension), and KEHF-paw (knee extension and hip flexion). BFL peak and mean velocity shifts relative to BFS were seen in all four coupling classes (p<0.05) and the majority of the gait subclasses (p<0.05). Muscle displacements were larger in BFL for both KFHE-paw and KEHF-kick (p<0.05), smaller in KFHF-tuck (p<0.05), but not significantly different in KEHE-jump or during most of the running gait subclasses, except for during KFHE-late mid stance and KEHF-mid swing, where they were larger for BFL (p<0.05). The mechanical benefits associated with BFL velocity shift relative to BFs were identified in KFHF, KEHF motions, and certain subclasses of gait. In contrast, there were potential mechanical detriments due to velocity shift relative to BFs in the KEHE-jump, KFHE-paw, and the majority of KEHE and KFHE subclasses in both gait cycles. The possible mechanical benefits associated with displacement conservation of BFL relative to BFs would be realized in KFHF-tuck jump, but not during KEHE-jump and the gait cycle subclasses. The findings of this study reveal both mechanical benefits and detriments of biarticular muscles, and have immediate implications for neural control of biarticular muscles during movement.

The purposes of the present study were to resolve a number of major inconsistencies found in the literature on the structure of the quadriceps femoris muscle and to extend knowledge of its structure using descriptive, qualitative methodology. The quadriceps femoris muscle was investigated in 41 cats, and the findings were confirmed in 6 human cadavers. Two aponeuroses with major biomechanical functions (rectus-vastus and vastus aponeurosis), neither of which had been previously described in the literature, were characterized in both species. The study also resolved many major inconsistencies in the literature: The muscle sometimes described as vastus intermedius (VI) was found to be the articularis genu, the muscle sometimes described as vastus medialis (VM) was found to be the VI, the rectus femoris head was found to have an additional proximal nerve branch not previously recognized, no anomalous 5th head was ever found, and the distal VM were not found to have 2 heads (in either cats or humans). The authors’ anatomical descriptions and bimechanical models of the muscles, tendons, and neurovascular should provide a helpful foundation for future studies on the quadriceps. Two general recommendations are made: 1) that the feline model be considered a viable model to elucidate human knee pathomechanics; and 2) that regardless of the anatomical structure of interest, orthopedic nurses, orthopedic surgeons, and research investigators should routinely use the research literature for anatomical guidance instead of standard anatomical textbooks. © 2002, Sage Publications. All rights reserved.

The global intent of this research was to confirm the validity of the interpolated twitch technique (ITT) to voluntary torque model (first study) and then to utilize this technique in developing definitive criterion measures enhancing the study of training strategies on central fatigue (second study) and velocity specific (third study) voluntary activation (VA) and force production outcomes. The first study assessed the contribution of non-stimulated synergists to the non-linearity of the ITT voluntary torque relationship for elbow flexion contraction. Since multiple synergist stimulation was found not to significantly improve the ITT to voluntary torque relationship, follow-up pilot work was conducted in which the quadriceps femoris was identified as a valid ITT test model muscle. The first training study investigated the effects of high volume, maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) resistance training of the quadriceps femoris on MVIC levels of force and VA prior to, during, and recovery from a standardized fatigue test protocol. Results showed significant increases in pre-fatigue MVIC VA and force, increases in resistance to early fatigue, but also increased overall rate of fatigue resulting in non-significant changes in total force volume and endurance time. Post-fatigue analysis showed significant training increases in rate and level of recovery for both MVIC VA and force production. The second training study investigated the effects of high resistance ramp versus ballistic type MVIC strength training of the quadriceps femoris on central adaptations in submaximal and maximal levels of MVIC VA and force production. Results showed similar ramp and ballistic group training increases in MVIC force and VA on both ramp and ballistic tests. Ballistic group, ballistic test change scores were significant but not for the ramp test, suggesting ballistic group test-training specificity. The ballistic group showed significant force increases on the submaximal 150ms ballistic test, while the ramp group showed non-significant training changes, further supporting test-training specificity for the ballistic group. Results support utility of the ITT and provide valuable information with regard to training and test-training specificity considerations.

Freie Universiẗat, Diss., 2005--Berlin. / Dateiformat: zip, Dateien im PDF-Format. ERscheinungsjahr an der Haupttitelstelle: 2005.

O exercício excêntrico é utilizado como uma estratégia de treinamento de força em atletas e sujeitos saudáveis de diferentes faixas etárias. Esse tipo de exercício também é largamente difundido na área da reabilitação musculoesquelética, sendo o quadríceps femoral o músculo mais frequentemente investigado devido à sua relevância clínica. O tema dessa tese de Doutorado é a adaptação do sistema neuromuscular ao treinamento excêntrico de extensores de joelho. No Capítulo I, um estudo de revisão procurou descrever os diferentes métodos empregados pelos cientistas para o treinamento excêntrico de extensores de joelho, assim como avaliar as adaptações neurais, morfológicas e na produção de força muscular de sujeitos saudáveis. Após busca sistematizada nas bases de dados, 26 estudos foram incorporados ao nosso estudo de revisão. Os programas de treinamento excêntrico realizados em dinamômetro isocinético e em equipamentos isotônicos (leg-press e cadeira extensora de joelho) foram descritos e discutidos. Os resultados desses estudos indicam um efeito positivo do treinamento excêntrico sobre a força e a ativação muscular, especialmente em testes excêntricos, assim como uma significativa resposta hipertrófica. Porém, resultados conflitantes e lacunas identificadas na literatura incentivaram a realização de dois estudos originais para verificar: (1) o comportamento temporal das adaptações neurais e morfológicas ao treinamento excêntrico de extensores de joelho e suas contribuições para os ganhos de força (Capítulo II); e (2) as adaptações específicas de músculos sinergistas da extensão de joelho: reto femoral (RF) e vasto lateral (VL) (Capítulo III). Vinte homens saudáveis realizaram um período controle de quatro semanas sem treinamento, seguido por um programa de 12 semanas de treinamento excêntrico em dinamômetro isocinético. Avaliações de torque, eletromiografia e ultrassonografia de extensores de joelho foram realizadas a cada quatro semanas. Um maior ganho de força foi verificado nos testes excêntricos, seguido pelos testes isométricos e concêntricos. A ativação muscular nos testes excêntricos e isométricos aumentou após quatro e oito semanas de treinamento, respectivamente, ao passo que os testes concêntricos não apresentaram alteração da atividade eletromiográfica. Os valores de espessura muscular, área de secção transversa anatômica e comprimento de fascículo aumentaram após quatro e oito semanas de treinamento, mas não modificaram entre a oitava e a 12ª semana de intervenção. As adaptações na geometria fascicular dos músculos RF e VL foram semelhantes ao longo do programa de treinamento. Nossos achados sugerem que: (1) existe um forte efeito da especificidade do exercício excêntrico sobre os aumentos de força e ativação muscular; (2) os ganhos de força excêntrica e isométrica até a oitava semana de treinamento estão relacionados a adaptações neurais e morfológicas mensuráveis, enquanto outros mecanismos podem estar relacionados aos ganhos nas quatro últimas semanas de intervenção; (3) o ganho de força concêntrica não é afetado por adaptações neurais; (4) o treinamento excêntrico aumenta o comprimento, mas não o ângulo de penação fascicular; (5) as adaptações na arquitetura muscular podem ocorrer nas primeiras semanas de treinamento; e (6) apesar das diferenças estruturais e funcionais, RF e VL apresentam índices semelhantes de adaptação. / Eccentric exercise is used as a strategy for strength training in athletes and healthy subjects with different ages. This type of exercise is also frequently used in musculoskeletal rehabilitation, and the quadriceps femoris is the most frequently investigated muscle due its clinical relevance. The theme of this PhD thesis is the adaptation of the neuromuscular system to knee extensor eccentric training. In Chapter I, a review study aimed at describing the different methods employed by scientists for knee extensor eccentric training, as well as for evaluating the neural, morphological and muscular strength adaptations in healthy subjects. After a systematized search in related data bases, 26 studies were incorporated to our review study. Eccentric training programs performed in isokinetic dynamometers and isotonic devices (leg-press and knee extension chair) were described and discussed. Results from these studies indicate a positive effect of eccentric training on muscle strength and activation, especially in eccentric tests, as well as a significant hypertrophic response. However, conflicting results and gaps observed in the literature encouraged us to perform two original studies to verify: (1) the time course of neural and morphological adaptations to knee extensor eccentric training and their contribution to strength gains (Chapter II); and (2) the specific adaptive responses from synergistic knee extensor muscles: rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis (VL) (Chapter III). Twenty healthy men performed a four-week control period without training, followed by a 12-week eccentric training on an isokinetic dynamometer. Knee extensor evaluations of torque, electromyography and ultrasonography were made every four weeks. A higher strength increase was observed in eccentric tests, followed by isometric and concentric tests. Muscle activation in eccentric and isometric tests increased after four and eight weeks of training, respectively, while the concentric tests presented no change in the electromyographic activity. Muscle thickness, anatomical cross-sectional area and fascicle length values increased after four and eight weeks of training, but did not change between the eighth and twelfth intervention week. Adaptations in RF and VL fascicular geometry were similar throughout the training program. Our findings suggest that: (1) there is a strong specificity effect of eccentric exercise on increases in muscle strength and activation; (2) eccentric and isometric strength gains up to the eighth week of training are related to measurable neural and morphological adaptations, while other mechanisms may be related to strength increase in the last four weeks of intervention; (3) concentric strength gain is not affected by neural adaptations; (4) eccentric training increases fascicle length, but not pennation angle; (5) muscle architecture adaptations may occur in the first weeks of training; and (6) despite the structural and functional differences, RF and VL present similar adaptation levels.

O exercício excêntrico é utilizado como uma estratégia de treinamento de força em atletas e sujeitos saudáveis de diferentes faixas etárias. Esse tipo de exercício também é largamente difundido na área da reabilitação musculoesquelética, sendo o quadríceps femoral o músculo mais frequentemente investigado devido à sua relevância clínica. O tema dessa tese de Doutorado é a adaptação do sistema neuromuscular ao treinamento excêntrico de extensores de joelho. No Capítulo I, um estudo de revisão procurou descrever os diferentes métodos empregados pelos cientistas para o treinamento excêntrico de extensores de joelho, assim como avaliar as adaptações neurais, morfológicas e na produção de força muscular de sujeitos saudáveis. Após busca sistematizada nas bases de dados, 26 estudos foram incorporados ao nosso estudo de revisão. Os programas de treinamento excêntrico realizados em dinamômetro isocinético e em equipamentos isotônicos (leg-press e cadeira extensora de joelho) foram descritos e discutidos. Os resultados desses estudos indicam um efeito positivo do treinamento excêntrico sobre a força e a ativação muscular, especialmente em testes excêntricos, assim como uma significativa resposta hipertrófica. Porém, resultados conflitantes e lacunas identificadas na literatura incentivaram a realização de dois estudos originais para verificar: (1) o comportamento temporal das adaptações neurais e morfológicas ao treinamento excêntrico de extensores de joelho e suas contribuições para os ganhos de força (Capítulo II); e (2) as adaptações específicas de músculos sinergistas da extensão de joelho: reto femoral (RF) e vasto lateral (VL) (Capítulo III). Vinte homens saudáveis realizaram um período controle de quatro semanas sem treinamento, seguido por um programa de 12 semanas de treinamento excêntrico em dinamômetro isocinético. Avaliações de torque, eletromiografia e ultrassonografia de extensores de joelho foram realizadas a cada quatro semanas. Um maior ganho de força foi verificado nos testes excêntricos, seguido pelos testes isométricos e concêntricos. A ativação muscular nos testes excêntricos e isométricos aumentou após quatro e oito semanas de treinamento, respectivamente, ao passo que os testes concêntricos não apresentaram alteração da atividade eletromiográfica. Os valores de espessura muscular, área de secção transversa anatômica e comprimento de fascículo aumentaram após quatro e oito semanas de treinamento, mas não modificaram entre a oitava e a 12ª semana de intervenção. As adaptações na geometria fascicular dos músculos RF e VL foram semelhantes ao longo do programa de treinamento. Nossos achados sugerem que: (1) existe um forte efeito da especificidade do exercício excêntrico sobre os aumentos de força e ativação muscular; (2) os ganhos de força excêntrica e isométrica até a oitava semana de treinamento estão relacionados a adaptações neurais e morfológicas mensuráveis, enquanto outros mecanismos podem estar relacionados aos ganhos nas quatro últimas semanas de intervenção; (3) o ganho de força concêntrica não é afetado por adaptações neurais; (4) o treinamento excêntrico aumenta o comprimento, mas não o ângulo de penação fascicular; (5) as adaptações na arquitetura muscular podem ocorrer nas primeiras semanas de treinamento; e (6) apesar das diferenças estruturais e funcionais, RF e VL apresentam índices semelhantes de adaptação. / Eccentric exercise is used as a strategy for strength training in athletes and healthy subjects with different ages. This type of exercise is also frequently used in musculoskeletal rehabilitation, and the quadriceps femoris is the most frequently investigated muscle due its clinical relevance. The theme of this PhD thesis is the adaptation of the neuromuscular system to knee extensor eccentric training. In Chapter I, a review study aimed at describing the different methods employed by scientists for knee extensor eccentric training, as well as for evaluating the neural, morphological and muscular strength adaptations in healthy subjects. After a systematized search in related data bases, 26 studies were incorporated to our review study. Eccentric training programs performed in isokinetic dynamometers and isotonic devices (leg-press and knee extension chair) were described and discussed. Results from these studies indicate a positive effect of eccentric training on muscle strength and activation, especially in eccentric tests, as well as a significant hypertrophic response. However, conflicting results and gaps observed in the literature encouraged us to perform two original studies to verify: (1) the time course of neural and morphological adaptations to knee extensor eccentric training and their contribution to strength gains (Chapter II); and (2) the specific adaptive responses from synergistic knee extensor muscles: rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis (VL) (Chapter III). Twenty healthy men performed a four-week control period without training, followed by a 12-week eccentric training on an isokinetic dynamometer. Knee extensor evaluations of torque, electromyography and ultrasonography were made every four weeks. A higher strength increase was observed in eccentric tests, followed by isometric and concentric tests. Muscle activation in eccentric and isometric tests increased after four and eight weeks of training, respectively, while the concentric tests presented no change in the electromyographic activity. Muscle thickness, anatomical cross-sectional area and fascicle length values increased after four and eight weeks of training, but did not change between the eighth and twelfth intervention week. Adaptations in RF and VL fascicular geometry were similar throughout the training program. Our findings suggest that: (1) there is a strong specificity effect of eccentric exercise on increases in muscle strength and activation; (2) eccentric and isometric strength gains up to the eighth week of training are related to measurable neural and morphological adaptations, while other mechanisms may be related to strength increase in the last four weeks of intervention; (3) concentric strength gain is not affected by neural adaptations; (4) eccentric training increases fascicle length, but not pennation angle; (5) muscle architecture adaptations may occur in the first weeks of training; and (6) despite the structural and functional differences, RF and VL present similar adaptation levels.

O exercício excêntrico é utilizado como uma estratégia de treinamento de força em atletas e sujeitos saudáveis de diferentes faixas etárias. Esse tipo de exercício também é largamente difundido na área da reabilitação musculoesquelética, sendo o quadríceps femoral o músculo mais frequentemente investigado devido à sua relevância clínica. O tema dessa tese de Doutorado é a adaptação do sistema neuromuscular ao treinamento excêntrico de extensores de joelho. No Capítulo I, um estudo de revisão procurou descrever os diferentes métodos empregados pelos cientistas para o treinamento excêntrico de extensores de joelho, assim como avaliar as adaptações neurais, morfológicas e na produção de força muscular de sujeitos saudáveis. Após busca sistematizada nas bases de dados, 26 estudos foram incorporados ao nosso estudo de revisão. Os programas de treinamento excêntrico realizados em dinamômetro isocinético e em equipamentos isotônicos (leg-press e cadeira extensora de joelho) foram descritos e discutidos. Os resultados desses estudos indicam um efeito positivo do treinamento excêntrico sobre a força e a ativação muscular, especialmente em testes excêntricos, assim como uma significativa resposta hipertrófica. Porém, resultados conflitantes e lacunas identificadas na literatura incentivaram a realização de dois estudos originais para verificar: (1) o comportamento temporal das adaptações neurais e morfológicas ao treinamento excêntrico de extensores de joelho e suas contribuições para os ganhos de força (Capítulo II); e (2) as adaptações específicas de músculos sinergistas da extensão de joelho: reto femoral (RF) e vasto lateral (VL) (Capítulo III). Vinte homens saudáveis realizaram um período controle de quatro semanas sem treinamento, seguido por um programa de 12 semanas de treinamento excêntrico em dinamômetro isocinético. Avaliações de torque, eletromiografia e ultrassonografia de extensores de joelho foram realizadas a cada quatro semanas. Um maior ganho de força foi verificado nos testes excêntricos, seguido pelos testes isométricos e concêntricos. A ativação muscular nos testes excêntricos e isométricos aumentou após quatro e oito semanas de treinamento, respectivamente, ao passo que os testes concêntricos não apresentaram alteração da atividade eletromiográfica. Os valores de espessura muscular, área de secção transversa anatômica e comprimento de fascículo aumentaram após quatro e oito semanas de treinamento, mas não modificaram entre a oitava e a 12ª semana de intervenção. As adaptações na geometria fascicular dos músculos RF e VL foram semelhantes ao longo do programa de treinamento. Nossos achados sugerem que: (1) existe um forte efeito da especificidade do exercício excêntrico sobre os aumentos de força e ativação muscular; (2) os ganhos de força excêntrica e isométrica até a oitava semana de treinamento estão relacionados a adaptações neurais e morfológicas mensuráveis, enquanto outros mecanismos podem estar relacionados aos ganhos nas quatro últimas semanas de intervenção; (3) o ganho de força concêntrica não é afetado por adaptações neurais; (4) o treinamento excêntrico aumenta o comprimento, mas não o ângulo de penação fascicular; (5) as adaptações na arquitetura muscular podem ocorrer nas primeiras semanas de treinamento; e (6) apesar das diferenças estruturais e funcionais, RF e VL apresentam índices semelhantes de adaptação. / Eccentric exercise is used as a strategy for strength training in athletes and healthy subjects with different ages. This type of exercise is also frequently used in musculoskeletal rehabilitation, and the quadriceps femoris is the most frequently investigated muscle due its clinical relevance. The theme of this PhD thesis is the adaptation of the neuromuscular system to knee extensor eccentric training. In Chapter I, a review study aimed at describing the different methods employed by scientists for knee extensor eccentric training, as well as for evaluating the neural, morphological and muscular strength adaptations in healthy subjects. After a systematized search in related data bases, 26 studies were incorporated to our review study. Eccentric training programs performed in isokinetic dynamometers and isotonic devices (leg-press and knee extension chair) were described and discussed. Results from these studies indicate a positive effect of eccentric training on muscle strength and activation, especially in eccentric tests, as well as a significant hypertrophic response. However, conflicting results and gaps observed in the literature encouraged us to perform two original studies to verify: (1) the time course of neural and morphological adaptations to knee extensor eccentric training and their contribution to strength gains (Chapter II); and (2) the specific adaptive responses from synergistic knee extensor muscles: rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis (VL) (Chapter III). Twenty healthy men performed a four-week control period without training, followed by a 12-week eccentric training on an isokinetic dynamometer. Knee extensor evaluations of torque, electromyography and ultrasonography were made every four weeks. A higher strength increase was observed in eccentric tests, followed by isometric and concentric tests. Muscle activation in eccentric and isometric tests increased after four and eight weeks of training, respectively, while the concentric tests presented no change in the electromyographic activity. Muscle thickness, anatomical cross-sectional area and fascicle length values increased after four and eight weeks of training, but did not change between the eighth and twelfth intervention week. Adaptations in RF and VL fascicular geometry were similar throughout the training program. Our findings suggest that: (1) there is a strong specificity effect of eccentric exercise on increases in muscle strength and activation; (2) eccentric and isometric strength gains up to the eighth week of training are related to measurable neural and morphological adaptations, while other mechanisms may be related to strength increase in the last four weeks of intervention; (3) concentric strength gain is not affected by neural adaptations; (4) eccentric training increases fascicle length, but not pennation angle; (5) muscle architecture adaptations may occur in the first weeks of training; and (6) despite the structural and functional differences, RF and VL present similar adaptation levels.