Old-growth stands are important for management, conservation, wildlife, recreation, and maintaining biological diversity in forested landscapes. However, we are lacking the information needed to adequately identify and characterize old-growth stands. This is especially true for high elevation, interior forests. The characterization of stand structure and regeneration pattern will help in the development of site-specific guidelines for identifying old growth stands and restoring some of the old-growth characteristics in managed stands. This pamphlet presents a synopsis of a study investigating stand structure and regeneration of old-growth stands in the Moist Cold Engelmann Spruce - Subalpine Fir (ESSFmc) Subzone near Smithers, B.C. The three stands selected for the study were located on zonal sites, each in different watersheds, and the stands were established after fire. The criteria used for selection were: i) absence of lodgepole pine, ii) presence of advanced regeneration, and iii) abundant snags and coarse woody debris. These stands were presumed to represent the old-growth stage of stand development or the final (climax) stage of secondary succession.

The effects of fire and mechanical clearing were investigated for their potential in assisting with the eradication of Chromolaena odorata (previously Eupatorium odoratum). The study was divided into two focus areas, the first focused on mechanical clearing of dense stands of C. odorata on three sites and the second focused on the long term influences of a single burn on C. odorata plants in the different size categories. For mechanical clearing, two key issues were investigated; namely whether this type of clearing procedure was effective in dense C. odorata stands and whether rehabilitation was necessary in these cleared areas. The study was conducted from July 2002 to June 2004. The area was subject to a severe drought throughout the duration of the study. The severe drought had a large influence on the result in both focus areas. A bulldozer was found to be a very effective at clearing dense C. odorata stands. Results from the mechanical clearing study showed that there was still a large viable grass seed population in the areas that had been covered by a dense stand of C. odorata plants for over three years. Thus, indigenous plants were able to re-colonize the area after removal of C. odorata without human intervention, even thought the area was experiencing a severe drought. The density of C. odorata seedlings emerging in the cleared areas was far lower than expected. The C. odorata density in the permanent plots, for seedlings that germinated in the first season after clearing (SeptemberOctober 2002), was only 0.25,0.03 and 0.72 per 5 m2 in the three sites respectively by the end of the study in June 2004. For the C. odorata seedlings that germinated in the second season (September-October 2003) the density was, 0.5, 0.56 and 1.06 per 5 m2 in the three sites respectively by the end of the study in June 2004. It was suspected that the drought influenced seed germination. Unfortunately the number of C. odorata seedlings was so low, that no significant relationship could be found between grass and C. odorata seedling density. By the end of the study the grass fuel mass in all the rehabilitated sites was already over 3000 kg ha-1, even though the area was experiencing a severe drought. This grass fuel load, when burnt, will assist land managers in controlling C. odorata plants, especially seedlings. Very few other alien invasive plant species emerged in the cleared areas. At the Mhlosinga site, Senna pendula made up less than one percent of the herbaceous species composition and only a single Ricinus communis plant was recorded. No alien plant species were recorded on the other two sites. Results from the burning trials revealed that plants in all the size categories were affected by fire. Greater fuel masses and fire intensities were required to kill larger C. odorata plants relative to smaller ones. Fire was found to be very effective at eliminating small and medium size C. odorata plants. Fire applied as a once off treatment had a significant long-term effect on the C. odorata population. The following fuel loads were required to achieve 80% mortality in this 11 study: for small plants a fuel load of over 4000 kg ha-I, for medium plants a fuel load over 4200 kg ha-I and for large plants a fuel load over 4600 kg ha-I. Little difference could be detected between a head or a back burn, as both fire types had their own advantages and disadvantages. Although some of the C. odorata plants in the burnt plots had not perished by the time of the first investigation, following the burn (February 2003), by the time of the second investigation (June 2004), many of these plants had eventually succumbed. These results highlighted the fact that plants which are damaged by fire were more likely to persish during an extended droughts period, than plants which were not subjected to fire. Results from the control plots, in the burning trials, for medium and large plants showed dramatic increases in density over time. Tagged individuals from the control plots did reveal that some of the medium and large plants did die during the drought, although the amount was negligible when compared to the number of new plants growing into the new size categories. A large proportion of the small plants in the control plots also survived the drought with many of them even growing into the medium category. The difference between the control plots and the burnt plots was obvious and significant, especially once the fuel mass exceeded 3783 kg ha-I. Results from this study show that fire can be used as a very effective tool in assisting land managers to control C. odorata in open savanna bushveld. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Die Geruchswahrnehmung von Insekten ist an die spezifischen Anforderungen der Ökosysteme angepasst, in denen sie leben. Von Insekten wahrgenommene Volatile können Informationen über den Ort eines geeigneten Ovipositionsplatzes oder den physiologischen Zustand einer Wirtspflanze geben. Da der Geruchssinn der Insekten sich seit Millionen von Jahren an die Wahrnehmung bestimmter Volatile angepasst hat, können die wahrgenommenen Volatile als Markerstoffe angesehen werden, die zuverlässig einen Ökosystemzustand angeben können. Die Identifikation dieser Markerzustände und die Evaluation ihrer Nützlichkeit für spurenanalytische Anwendungen ist das Ziel dieser Arbeit. Es wurden drei Themen ausgewählt um die Verwendungsmöglichkeit des Insektengeruchssinns für Sensoranwendungen zu überprüfen: Fleischfrische, Todeszeitbestimmung (post mortem Intervall, PMI) und frühzeitige Feuererkennung. Spurenanalytik (GC-MS), Elektrophysiologie (EAG, GC-MS/EAD), Verhaltensversuche und Feldtests wurden angewandt, um die chemoökologische Interaktion der Schmeißfliege Calliphora vicina und der „Feuerkäfer“ Melanophila cuspidata, Merimna atrata and Acanthocnemus nigricans mit ihrer natürlichen Umgebung zu untersuchen. Die Resultate aus diesen Methoden erlaubten die Selektion von Volatilen, die drei Kriteria erfüllen: hohe Quantität, zuverlässige Emission und die ausschliessliche Emission von der untersuchten und keiner anderen Quelle. Diese drei Auswahlkriterien wurden aufgestellt um zu gewährleisten, dass die ausgewählten Markervolatile nicht nur zuverlässig mit dem physiologischen Status der Substrate (Alter von verderbendem Fleisch, PMI, Temperatur von erhitzten Spänen) korrelieren, sondern auch den Ansprüchen technischen Sensorsysteme genügen. Im Falle des alternden Fleisches unter warmen und trockenen Bedingungen ist Nonanal ein Zeiger für die korrekte Reifung des Fleisches zu Schinken. Dimethyl Trisulfid, Phenol und Indol zeigen das Verderben des Fleisches unter warmen und feuchten Bedingungen an. Bei niedrigen Temperaturen sind zunehmende 2,3 Butandiol Emission und abnehmende Nonanal Emission ein Zeiger für zunehmendes Verderben des Fleisches, sowohl unter trockenen als auch feuchten Bedingungen. Allerdings wurde 2,3 Butandiol nicht von C. vicina wahrgenommen, da die Fliege während der Vegetationszeit aktiv ist und unter diesen Bedingungen Dimethyl Trisulfid, Phenol und Indol emittiert werden. Nonanal, Hexanal, Dimethyl Disulfid, Dimethyl Trisulfid, Butan-1-ol und Phenol wurden als nützliche Volatile zur Eingrenzung der Leichenliegezeit ausgewählt. Die genannten Aldehyde sind typisch für die frühen Stadien der Verwesung, gefolgt von Butan-1-ol und den Schwefelsulfiden. Phenol wird hauptsächlich in den späteren Verwesungsstadien emittiert. Allerdings werden Phenol und 1-Butanol nicht von der Fliege wahrgenommen, da diese ein Generalist ist und nicht zwischen dem geblähten und aktivem Stadium der Verwesung unterscheiden muss. Daher wird zusätzlich die Geruchswahrnehmung des Speckkäfers Dermestes maculans betrachtet. Die Untersuchung anderer necrophager Insekten können weitere Einblicke in die Zeitabhängigkeit der Volatilemissionen während der Vertebratenverwesung geben. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gewonnenen Ergebnisse erlauben eine Korrelation zwischen Emissionen und Leichenliegezeit und können eine Grundlage für eine volatilenbasierte post mortem Zeitbestimmung für Polizeikräfte sein. Terpene, aliphatische Aldehyde, Furfural und Methoxyphenole werden von erhitztem Holz emittiert. Komponenten aus all diesen Stoffklassen werden von M. cuspidata und M. atrata wahrgenommen, da diese Käfer den Erhitzungszustand von Baumstämmen nach einem Feuer erkennen können, um einen geeigneten Ovipositionsplatz zu finden. A. nigricans nimmt vor allem Methoxyphenole wahr, wohingegen M. atrata und M. acuminata Furfural zur Orientierung verwenden. Diese Unterschiede komplementieren das bekannte Verhalten dieser Käfer in ihrer natürlichen Umgebung, da A. nigricans auf verkohlten Stämmen, die große Mengen von Methoxyphenolen emittieren, seine Eier ablegt, und M. atrata und M. cuspidata auf Stämmen ihre Eier ablegen, die vom Feuer zwar äußerlich verkohlt, aber innerlich nur erhitzt wurden und daher Furfural emittieren. Halbleitergassensoren, die Furfural mit einer ausreichenden Selektivität vermessen können, können Holzbrände schon während ansteigender Temperatur und damit vor der Entzündung detektieren. Derartige Sensoren können sowohl als neuartige Frühwarnsysteme für die holzverarbeitende Industrie als auch für Waldbrandwarnsysteme oder den Haushalt dienen.

This thesis examines landscape change from 1889 to the present within the foothills-parkland ecoregion of Waterton Lakes National Park (WLNP) in southwestern Alberta, Canada. Land cover dynamics are explored qualitatively and quantitatively using Geographical Information Systems and a combination of historical and contemporary data sources including: (1) Dominion Land Survey (DLS) transect records (1889), (2) repeat oblique photographs (1914 and 2004) and repeat aerial photography (1939 and 1999). Results indicate a consistent increase in woody vegetation cover, particularly aspen forest cover, within the foothills-parkland since 1889, largely at the expense of native grasslands. The primary drivers of these changes likely include: climatic influences, changes to the historical grazing regime, the suppression of natural fire cycles and the cessation of First Nations’ land management practices. This research illustrates the value of integrating multiple historical data sources for studying landscape change in the Canadian Rockies, and explores the implications of this change for ecological restoration in the foothills-parkland of WLNP.

This thesis examines landscape change from 1889 to the present within the foothills-parkland ecoregion of Waterton Lakes National Park (WLNP) in southwestern Alberta, Canada. Land cover dynamics are explored qualitatively and quantitatively using Geographical Information Systems and a combination of historical and contemporary data sources including: (1) Dominion Land Survey (DLS) transect records (1889), (2) repeat oblique photographs (1914 and 2004) and repeat aerial photography (1939 and 1999). Results indicate a consistent increase in woody vegetation cover, particularly aspen forest cover, within the foothills-parkland since 1889, largely at the expense of native grasslands. The primary drivers of these changes likely include: climatic influences, changes to the historical grazing regime, the suppression of natural fire cycles and the cessation of First Nations’ land management practices. This research illustrates the value of integrating multiple historical data sources for studying landscape change in the Canadian Rockies, and explores the implications of this change for ecological restoration in the foothills-parkland of WLNP.

Cyrtanthus nutans (RA Dyer) is a KwaZulu-Natal Province near-endemic species, classified as vulnerable in South Africa (IUCN Red Data categories). Literature references suggest that no recent ecological research has been conducted on Cyrtanthus nutans. Last assessed in 2007, the current study determined the demographics and the abiotic and biotic factors that influenced the distribution and range of Cyrtanthus nutans. Key determinants influencing the autecology, distribution and population dynamics of Cyrtanthus nutans were investigated. Anthropological factors influencing the decline of populations were addressed. Two investigations were undertaken for the current study on Cyrtanthus nutans in Dundee in North-western KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa namely a survey to determine the population dynamics and autecology of the species and the effect key determinants have on the recruitment and survival. Sites of occurrence and the ecological and anthropological factors that influence the existence of plants were documented. Experimental plots were conducted to determine the influence of climatological factors, fire and defoliation on the emergence and survival of Cyrtanthus nutans plants. A preference was found for soils with high nitrogen and organic carbon, low phosphorus and acidity levels situated on slopes of < 10% on mid to lower terrain slopes within an altitude range of between 1 100 and 1 300 m (a.m.s.l.) in the Sour Sandveld and Moist Tall Grassveld Bioresource Groups. The influence that climatological factors, fire and defoliation had on the emergence and seed recruitment of Cyrtanthus nutans were determined through a small plot experiment in the Dundee area. Mean relative humidity (%) and mean rainfall two weeks before emergence in conjunction with treatments were highly significant (P<0.001). Burning treatments B (fire inclusion and defoliation inclusion) and BC (fire inclusion and defoliation exclusion) were more highly significant on the emergence of Cyrtanthus nutans plants than any other treatments. ii | P a g e Increasing fragmentation of thriving populations of Cyrtanthus nutans populations is occurring through landuse change, mismanagement of veld and non-compliance of legislation. Continued monitoring and awareness is essential in the survival of this species. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Sciences)

The structuring of ant assemblages in a Southern African savanna was investigated using data from the only long-term, large-scale savanna fire experiment in Africa. A comprehensive survey of three habitats in the Kruger National Park (KNP) revealed a total of 169 ant species from 41 genera. The sampling efficiency and consistency of pitfall traps and Winkler samples for inventory, bioindicator and ecological studies in savanna habitats was compared using ants. Pitfall traps were more efficient and productive than Winkler sampling for epigaiec ants, with a greater total species richness and higher abundance of ants recorded. Suggestions were made to improve Winkler sampling output, and to allow quantitative data to be collected. With the structuring of local assemblages, competition was the most significant local factor tested. The relationship between ant dominance and ant species richness was consistent across three continents. A model developed to test mechanisms that could be responsible for the form of this relationship supported the hypothesis that competitive exclusion by dominant ants at least partially reduces species richness. Stress was only partially responsible for low dominance and low species richness, while scatter in the data points is related to patchiness of ants at baits. These findings contrast strongly with previous claims regarding the relationship between richness and dominance. Habitat complexity was not found to play an important role in determining ant assemblage body size in this savanna system. The size-grain hypothesis (Kaspari&Weiser 1999) which predicts that environmental rugosity results in positive allometric scaling of leg length on body length because of changes in locomotion costs, was tested by comparing the body sizes of ants from areas of contrasting habitat complexity. No support for the hypothesis was found. Phylogenetic independent contrast methods did however support the allometric relationship found by Kaspari and Weiser (1999). Ant assemblages in KNP exhibited a remarkable degree of resistance, and in some cases resilience, to burning. Species richness or abundance did not vary with different burning treatments, although ant assemblage composition was sensitive to burning treatment. This difference, however, was only pronounced between burnt and unburnt plots, not between burning treatments. The degree of response of ant assemblages is likely to be related to two main contributory factors: mean annual rainfall and changes in vegetation structure with burning, and the assemblage's history of association with fire. An overview of published research on the effects of fire on fauna in Southern Africa was undertaken. Few studies have examined the effects of fire on amphibians or reptiles and few experimental studies have been undertaken using an experimental fire regime applied over appropriately long time intervals. Most studies provided no information on the scale of the study. Replication was often not reported, and was generally inadequate. Information on the effects of fire on fauna in Southern Africa is fragmentary, and consequently informed management decisions regarding the consequences of burning policies on the conservation of biodiversity both within and outside protected areas are problematic. Recommendations and suggestions for improving fire research are given. / Thesis (DPhil (Zoology))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

This project provides a fire ecology lesson to accompany a hike for student groups from fourth through eighth grade. The lesson plan will acquaint students with the beneficial aspects of forest fires.

Wildfires destroy large tracts of veld and forest land every year in South Africa. These fires can be devastating, resulting in loss of human lives, the destruction of property and the loss of income, for example the forest fire in the Sabie district in Mpumalanga in 2007 which destroyed about 7% of South Africa’s forested areas. There are frequently legal disputes with respect to the origin of wildfires, the extent of the fire and the land cover destroyed by the fires. The forensic capabilities of remote sensing in detecting and analysing post-wildfire characteristics have become an important contribution towards solving such legal disputes and in understanding wildfire characteristics. These post fire products can be used as evidence in court cases. Most of the time those court cases came up a few years after the fire event. By then, little or no evidence can be found on the terrain where the fire was. Remote sensing archives provide a reliable source of data that can be used to analyse these events after these long intervals. The objective of this project is to highlight the methods used to generate these post-wildfire analysis products. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

Wildfires destroy large tracts of veld and forest land every year in South Africa. These fires can be devastating, resulting in loss of human lives, the destruction of property and the loss of income, for example the forest fire in the Sabie district in Mpumalanga in 2007 which destroyed about 7% of South Africa’s forested areas. There are frequently legal disputes with respect to the origin of wildfires, the extent of the fire and the land cover destroyed by the fires. The forensic capabilities of remote sensing in detecting and analysing post-wildfire characteristics have become an important contribution towards solving such legal disputes and in understanding wildfire characteristics. These post fire products can be used as evidence in court cases. Most of the time those court cases came up a few years after the fire event. By then, little or no evidence can be found on the terrain where the fire was. Remote sensing archives provide a reliable source of data that can be used to analyse these events after these long intervals. The objective of this project is to highlight the methods used to generate these post-wildfire analysis products. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)