The Rodeo-Chediski Wildfire the largest in Arizona's history at the time of burning damaged and disrupted ecosystems resources and functioning in a largely mosaic pattern throughout the ponderosa pine (Pinus Ponderosa) forests exposed to the burn. Impacts of this wildfire on ecosystems resources and functioning were studied from shortly after the cessation of the wildfire in late summer of 2002 through the spring of 2007 on two previously instrumented watersheds located on sandstone derived soils within the burn. One watershed was burned by a high severity (stand-replacing fire), while the other watershed burned in a low severity (stand-modifying) fire. This dissertation focuses on the effects fire severity had on watersheds resources and functioning in terms of the tree overstories, herbaceous understories, large and small mammals, avifauna, hydrologic functioning, soil water repellency, hillslope soil movement, and fuel loadings. The results of these studies indicated the cumulative impacts incurred to ecosystem resources, hydrologic functioning, and flammable fuels were much greater on the watershed exposed to the high severity (stand-replacing) fire. It is anticipated that the overall ecological and hydrologic function on the watershed burned by a high severity will not approach pre-fire conditions for many years. The watershed burned at a low severity, however, was approaching pre-fire conditions nearly five years after fire and is expected to be recovered within the next few years.

Under sommaren 2014 bröt den största skogsbranden ut i modern svensk historia. Branden startade i närheten av Sala och totalt brann cirka 14 000 ha. Till följd av klimatförändringar förväntas medeltemperaturen öka och nederbörden minska under sommarhalvåret i Sverige, vilket ökar risken för skogsbränder. Skogsbränder kan ha betydande effekter för akvatiska ekosystem och ett flertal studier av skogsbränders effekter har visat på förhöjda halter av näringsämnen, bas- och anjoner. Det branddrabbade området domineras av skogsmark, öppna torvmarker samt sjöar. Området har påverkats av ett intensivt skogsbruk och försurning. Med syfte att analysera brandens hårdhet och dess vattenkemiska effekter, utvärderades och klassificerades brandhårdheten. Analysen indikerade att ökad brandintensitet orsakat ökad brandhårdhet samt att skogsbeklädda dikade torvområden varit känsligare än öppna torvmarker. I området provtogs nio bäckar och tio sjöar. Under de första tre månaderna efter branden observerades höga halter av ammoniumkväve och sulfat i samtliga bäckar och i de flesta sjöarna inom det branddrabbade området. I Gärsjöbäcken var medianhalterna av ammoniumkväve 79 gånger högre efter branden. De höga ammoniumkvävehalterna medförde höga nitratkvävehalter till följd av nitrifikation. Surhet bedöms ofta genom pH och ANC (Acid neutralicing capacity) som är ett vattens förmåga att neutralisera en stark syra. Den initiala sulfatpulsen orsakade en sänkningav ANC i samtliga bäckar. Efter pulsen ökade ANC till följd av ökat läckage av kalium, kalcium och magnesium efter branden. Buffertkapaciteten varierade i bäckarna och i Myckelmossbäcken observerades högst sulfathalter och lägst ANC-värden. I april var ANC fortfarande lägre i Myckelmossbäcken än i övriga bäckar. Totalfosforhalterna ökade efter branden men inte i samma utsträckning som ammoniumkvävehalterna. Korrelationsanalyser gjordes mellan brandhårdhet och vattenkemiska parametrar. Maxhalterna av ammoniumkväve korrelerade positivt med svedd öppen torvmark och hårt brända kronor i skogsbeklädd torvmark. Det indikerade att när organiskt material förbränndes i öppna och skogsbeklädda torvmarker vid måttliga förbränningstemperaturer ökade läckaget av ammoniumkväve. / During the summer of 2014 the largest wildfire in Swedish modern history occurred. The fire was ignited in a forest close to the Swedish town Sala and incinerated a total of 14 000 ha. The frequency of wildfires is expected to increase, due to effects of climate change such as increased temperature and decreased precipitation during the summer months. Wildfires can have a considerable impact on aquatic ecosystems and previous studies of wildfires have shown elevated concentrations of nutrients, cat- and anions. The area of the fire mainly consists of forestland, peatland and lakes and has been affected by acidification and intensive forestry. To assess the fire severity and the effects on the water chemistry, the fire severity was analyzed and classified. The analysis indicated that increased fire intensity caused increased fire severity and that drained forested areas were more vulnerable to fire than undrained peatland. Measurements of water chemistry were conducted at nine streams and ten lakes inside the affected area. During the initial three months of the post-fire period large peaks of ammonium-nitrogen and sulphate were observed in the streams and in a majority of the lakes. In the stream Gärsjöbäcken the median concentrations of ammonium-nitrogen were 79 times higher after the fire. Due to nitrification the elevated concentrations of ammonium-nitrogen caused elevated concentrations of nitrate-nitrogen. ANC (Acid Neutralizing Capacity) and pH are often used to assess the acidity in surface waters, where ANC is the water’s ability to neutralize a strong acid. The initial peak of sulphate caused a drop in ANC but after the peak had past ANC increased due to elevated concentrations of base cations. The measured streams and lakes had different buffering capacity and in one stream Myckelmossbäcken the highest concentrations of sulphate and weakest buffering capacity were observed. In April ANC were still lower in Myckelmossbäcken than in other measured streams. Correlation analysis of fire severity and water chemistry indicated that the maximum concentrations of ammonium-nitrogen increased with severely burned canopies in drained forested peatlands and in scorched open peatland.

Interactions among site conditions, disturbance events, and climate determine the patterns of forest species recruitment and mortality across landscapes. Forests of the American Southwest have undergone significant changes over a century of altered disturbance regimes, human land uses, and changing environmental conditions. This study reconstructs the interactions between fire, spruce beetle outbreaks, climate, and anthropogenic factors and their influence on the species composition, spatial extent, and structure of four upper elevation forest types. We found that fire-climate associations changed following fire exclusion and recent high-severity fires occurred during less severe conditions than in several larger, lower severity fires in the historical record. Contemporary fires are burning with higher severity than similarly-sized historical fires, suggesting a shift toward higher-severity fire as a result of changes to forest structure and fuels over much of the upper elevation forest. In high elevation forests, the area occupied by Engelmann spruce and corkbark fir doubled in size over the four decades following fire exclusion. The increase in spruce beetle outbreak size and severity in the 20th century appears to be linked to significant expansion of host extent, accelerated growth of spruce in mixed-conifer forest, and incidence of anomalously warm summer temperatures followed by up to a decade of low precipitation. Trends toward warming, drying conditions are expected to increase the risk of future high-severity outbreaks, especially in locations of recent spruce population expansion. Forest conversion from disturbance-adapted to competition-adapted species following fire exclusion was a function of site productivity. Species assemblages in the lowest and highest productivity sites were the most stable over the century following fire exclusion. Frequent low severity fires maintained the stocking of forests in moderate productivity sites below their biological potential, conferring a degree of resistance to drought, insect outbreaks, and high-severity fire prior to fire exclusion. Current forests located on moderate productivity sites are now the most vulnerable to drought and future disturbance. Aggressive action to restore historical species composition, stocking and fire component of these forests may return resilience to this system in the face of projected changes to fire and climate dynamics.

In the past few decades, wildfires have increased in size and severity in the Southwest and across the western US. These recent trends in fire behavior are a drastic change in arid, ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forests of the Southwest compared with tree-ring records of fire history for the past ~ 400 years. This study presents a late Holocene record (~ 3,000 years) of fire history and related changes in fire regimes with climate variability over annual to multi-decadal time scales. Tree-ring and alluvial-sediment sampling sites were paired in four small, tributary basins located in the western San Juan Mountains of Colorado. In our study sites, tree-ring records show that fire return intervals were longer and fire behavior was more severe on the north-facing slopes with relatively dense mixed conifer stands. Increased fire barriers and steep topography decreased the fire frequency and extent relative to gentle terrain elsewhere in the range and leading to a lack of synchrony among fire years in different parts of the study area. The alluvial-sediment record showed four peaks in high-severity fire activity over the past 3,000 years ranging between 200 - 400 years in length. The timing of peaks coincided with decadal-length drought episodes and were often preceded by multiple decades of above average winter precipitation. The sampling of alluvial-sediment and tree-ring data allowed for site-level comparisons between recent alluvial deposits and specific fire years interpreted from the tree-ring records. We found good correspondence between the type of fire-related sediment deposit (i.e. geomorphic response) in the alluvial record and the extent of mixed and high-severity fire estimated from the tree-ring record, and the correspondence was well-supported by the debris flow probability model results. The two paleofire data tend to represent particular components of the historical fire regime, with alluvial-sediments biased towards infrequent, high-severity events during recent millennia, and the tree-ring record biased toward lower severity fires during recent centuries. The combined analyses of different paleofire proxy types in the same study sites, therefore, can enhance and expand our understanding of fire and climate history beyond what is possible with either proxy alone.

The recent increase in large fires in southwestern forests has prompted concern regarding their ecological consequences. Recognizing the importance of spatial patterns in influencing successional processes, I asked: (1) How do large fires change plant communities?; (2) What are the implications of these changes for ponderosa pine forests?; and (3) What is the relationship of fire severity to gradients of climate, fuels, and topography? To address the first two questions, I studied succession in the woody plant community at two sites that burned in high-severity fire: La Mesa fire in northern New Mexico (1977) and Saddle Mountain in northern Arizona (1960). After large fires, abiotic conditions, associated prefire plant distributions, and spatial patterns of burning interacted to result in particular successional outcomes. Variation in abundance and diversity of species that spread from a refuge of seed sources remaining after the fire followed the model of wave-form succession. I investigated the implications of large fires for ponderosa pine by examining the influence of spatial patterns of burning on regeneration. Tree density corresponded most closely with particular scales of seed dispersal kernel and neighborhood severity metrics. Spatial patterns of burning remained influential even after consideration of variables describing subsequent burning and the physical and biotic environment. Age structure of young forests indicated that populations spread in a moving front and by long-distance dispersal. To explore the relationship between fire severity and climate, I investigated how the spatial heterogeneity of high-severity patches varied among 20 fires across gradients in fire size and climate. The largest fires generally occurred during cool dry La Niña climates, however, several fires deviated from this trend. Some spatial properties of severity did not correspond to fire size or to changes in climate. Characteristics of fuels and topography altered spatial patterns of severity, but interactions with extreme burning conditions may have disrupted these local influences in both La Niña and El Niño fires. Spatial patterns of fire severity are central to understanding ecological dynamics following large fires in southwestern forests. Moreover, simplistic assumptions regarding the relation of fire severity to fire size and climate should be viewed with caution.

abstract: Two nearly homogenous 60 acre watersheds near Heber, Arizona, within the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest, were burned at moderate and high severities during the 2002 Rodeo-Chediski wildfire. Each watershed had 30 permanent plots located on it from earlier studies. In 2011, nearly 10 years following the fire, the plots were re-measured to determine how fire severity affects the long term vegetative recovery of this ecosystem; specifically herbaceous production and tree regeneration and density. Canopy cover, litter depth, herbaceous weight, herbaceous cover and shrub cover are vital indicators of herbaceous production, and were found to be significantly different between the sites. Canopy cover and litter depth were found to be significantly higher on the moderate site while herbaceous weight, herbaceous cover and shrub cover were found to be significantly higher on the high site. Tree densities of the three present tree species, ponderosa pine, alligator juniper, and gambel oak, were measured and divided into five size classes to distinguish the diversity of the communities. The mean densities for each species and size class were analyzed to determine if there were any statistically significant differences between the sites. Ponderosa pine saplings (regeneration) were found to have no significant differences between the sites. Juniper and oak saplings were found to be significantly higher on the high site. The remaining four ponderosa pine size classes were found to be significantly higher on the moderate site while the remaining four size classes for juniper and oak were found to have no statistical differences between the sites. Further analysis of the tree proportions revealed that the ponderosa pine species was significantly higher on the moderate site while juniper and oak were significantly higher on the high site. Species specific proportion analysis showed that the ponderosa pine size classes were significantly different across the sites while the juniper and oak size classes showed no significant differences between the sites. Within the ponderosa pine size classes, saplings were found to be significantly higher on the high site while the remaining four classes were significantly higher on the moderate site. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Applied Biological Sciences 2012

Fire is a natural and essential component of forests in western North America. Fire maintains biodiversity through the creation of different habitat types, and regular fire rotations reduce the accumulation of woody fuels and thick understory plant densities that give rise to catastrophic fire. The practice of fire exclusion has altered western forests and increased the risk of widespread change under rising temperatures projected for the 21st century. To manage for the reintroduction of fire it is critical that we understand the interactions between fire and forest biota in recently fire-suppressed forests. In Chapter 2, I studied the formation and impact of small-scale fire refugia. Fire refugia are areas within burned forest that experienced relatively little change, and are recognized as important places that offer protection for forest biota (vegetation, wildlife) during and after the fire. Very few studies, however, have examined small-scale fire refugia despite their importance to many organisms (e.g., small mammals, understory plants). In a long-term forest monitoring plot in Yosemite National Park, I mapped all unburned areas ≥ 1 m2 the first year after fire. I found small fire refugia were abundant, somewhat predictable, and fostered increased survival and diversity of nearby plant life. My results suggest that small fire refugia are an important component of burned forests that should be included in management considerations. In Chapter 3, I examined possible fisher habitat in burned areas. Fishers are forest carnivores of high conservation concern due to widespread declines since European settlement and the risk of habitat loss due to fire. An isolated population remains in the Sierra National Forest, where managers are weighing the need to reintroduce fire against possible detrimental impacts to current habitat. My research examined the forest structural characteristics (vegetative cover, heights of different forest layers) surrounding fisher dens. I found suitable thresholds of these structural characteristics in recently burned areas in Yosemite, particularly after low-severity fire. My results suggest that burned areas may offer suitable denning habitat for fishers, though more research is needed to determine if this conclusion holds for all fisher activities (e.g., foraging, resting) and scales of selection.

Drought conditions and wildfires can induce soil water repellency. Precipitation shifts are expected to exacerbate drought and wildfire in regions such as the southeastern United States, making it critical to understand how repellency affects water exchange processes in soil. The objectives of this dissertation were to 1) quantify the water vapor sorption dynamics of two clay minerals in which water repellency was induced; 2) identify if and for how long wildfires in humid hardwood forests induce water repellency, 3) evaluate if organic carbon content and hydrophobic functional groups explain actual and potential soil water repellency; and 4) understand how vertical position (i.e., depth) of water repellent layers affect infiltration processes. To meet these objectives, a laboratory test was first conducted examining water vapor sorption processes in water-repellent clay minerals. Next, a field study occurred in two forests that experienced wildfires in late 2016: Mount Pleasant Wildfire Refuge, Virginia, and Chimney Rock State Park, North Carolina, United States. Measurements include water drop penetration time, soil water content, and tension infiltration. Complimentary laboratory tests quantified potential soil water repellency, soil organic carbon content and hydrophobic functional groups. Results showed that water repellency inhibited water vapor condensation because of altered mineral surface potentials and decreased surface areas. Burned hardwood forest soils presented water repellency for > 1 year, though laboratory measurements presented different trends than in situ measurements. Total organic carbon content and hydrophobic functional groups correlated with soil water repellency measured in the laboratory but not the field. Soil water content was lower in burned than unburned soils, and negatively correlated with water repellency. Water repellency in the surface layers significantly reduced relative water infiltration rates, whereas subsurface water repellency did not, and water repellency persisted longer in sites with surface compared to subsurface water repellency. Finally, while the wildfires increased the occurrence of water repellency, they did not alter the underlying relationship between relative infiltration and surface water repellency. Altogether, this study provided new insight into water repellency effects on water partitioning at soil-atmosphere interfaces, and presented evidence of soil and hydrological changes induced by wildfires in humid hardwood forests. / PHD / Rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns that result from global climate change have the potential to induce long-term droughts, which may induce soil water repellency, as can wildfires that become more prevalent and damaging. Water repellency can alter the physical, chemical, and hydraulic properties of soil. These alterations may drive soil erosional processes and increase the mobility of surface-bound pollutants with the potential to reduce water quality and degrade down-gradient aquatic ecosystems. Thus, it is critical to understand how water repellency affects water movement in and through soils. Despite several decades of research towards this topic, some critical questions still remain. For example, how does water repellent soil influence water characteristics in the vapor phase (which is increasingly important under drought conditions)? Do wildfires in humid hardwood forests cause soil water repellency? If so, how long does water repellency persist? Do water repellency measurements using field and laboratory techniques correspond to one another? How does the depth of water repellent soil layer(s) affect water movement? In order to solve this questions, several tests were conducted in both field and laboratory. The field experiments occurred within forested hillslopes that underwent varying degrees of burning during widespread wildfires that affected the Southeastern United States in late 2016. Choosing two forested locations, we measured actual water repellency, soil moisture, and infiltration in burned and unburned sites after wildfire, and took loose samples for laboratory tests. In the lab, we tested potential water repellency on air-dried soil samples, soil organic carbon content and hydrophobic substance percentage. We also conducted water vapor sorption experiments to quantify water vapor exchange in two types of water repellent minerals: kaolinite and montmorillonite. The results showed that water repellency can affect water exchange between the subsurface and the atmosphere, by both limiting water vapor sorption and reducing liquid water infiltration. Soil organic matter and composition correlate well with potential water repellency measured in the laboratory, though less so with actual water repellency measured in the field. Instead, soil water content provided a high and inverse correlation with actual water repellency. Finally, water infiltration rates were influenced by the vertical position (depth) of water repellent layers, with water repellency at the soil surface causing much reduced initial infiltration rates compared to water-repellent layers in the subsurface.

For roughly the past 200 years land-managers have used the practice of “muirburning” to manipulate the structure of heather (Calluna vulgaris) to create a patchwork of habitat structures able to provide forage and nesting sites for red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) as well as grazing for sheep (Ovis aries) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). This thesis investigates both the behaviour and impact of management fires in recognition of the need to develop multi-aim land management practices that ensure both continued productivity and protection of biodiversity in the face of climatic and environmental change. Fuel structure and loading are crucial controlling factors on both fire behaviour and impact governing both rate of spread and heat release to the ground surface. A visual obstruction method is developed that estimates total and fine fuel loading as well as the structure of the heather canopy. In order to adequately understand fire impact a dimensional analysis approach is taken to estimating the mass of burnt heather stems. Experiments at a number of spatial and temporal scales relate variation in heather fuel moisture content to stand structure and variation in weather conditions. Monitoring shows moisture contents to be relatively stable temporally, but spatially variable. Periods of extreme low moisture contents in early spring are associated with frozen ground, winter cuticle damage and physiological drought. Such conditions may have contributed to the large number of wildfires in 2003. A replicated plot design was used to investigate the effect of weather conditions and fuel loading on fire behaviour. An empirical approach is taken to fire behaviour modelling with equations describing rate of spread and fireline intensity being developed on the basis of fuel structure descriptors and windspeed. The theoretical negative correlation between fuel bed density and rate of spread is demonstrated to hold true for heather stands, while the impact of heterogeneity in fuel bed structure is also investigated. Redundancy Analysis is used to investigate the influence of multiple predictors on a number of aspects of fire behaviour including: rate of spread, fireline intensity, flame length and ground surface heating. Data from this and previous studies are used to ground-truth a number of fire behaviour prediction systems including BehavePlus and the Canadian Fire Behaviour Prediction System. Finally linkages between fire behaviour, fire severity and heather regeneration are investigated. A number of proxy measures of ‘Immediate Severity’ are tested and used to examine the influence of fires on plant regeneration. The post-fire development of stands is shown to relate primarily to stand age and structure before burning, and to post-fire substrates rather than variation in fire behaviour and severity.

Dagens byggregler avseende hållfasthet för brandutsatta konstruktioner vilar starkt på brandpåverkan av standardbrandkurvan. Denna brandkurva representerar dock ej en naturlig brand särskilt väl. EKS (Boverkets tillämpning av europeeiska konstruktionsregler) ger även möjlighet för att använda naturliga brandförlopp för att utvärdera en byggnadsdels hållfasthet. Brandteknisk forskning har påvisat att det finns metoder som kvantitativt kan jämföra olika brandförlopps påverkan på byggnadsdelar med varandra, dessa metoder har utvecklats genom historien av brandteknisk forskning.  Den första modellen presenterades av S. H. Ingberg (1928) elva år efter att standardbrandkurvan som vi känner den idag (EN 13501-2, 2016) fått fäste inom den brandtekniska vetenskapen. Ingberg formulerade en hypotes baserad på ett stort antal försök på fullskaliga bränder där ansatsen var att en brands kvantifierade brandpåverkan kunde identifieras som arean som för en viss studerad tid begränsas i höjdled av brandens temperatur i överkant, och i underkant av en baslinjetemperatur som bestäms av den bärande konstruktionens materialegenskaper. Ingbergs ansats baserade sig på faktiska bränder i jämförelse med standardbrandkurvan (Ingberg, 1928). Denna teori har ifrågasatts då Ingberg i sina försök ej tog hänsyn till brandrummens olika ventilationsförutsättningar.   För att undersöka hur bärande byggnadsdelar dimensionerade med standardbrand står sig jämfört med två metoder med naturliga brandförlopp görs en kvantitativ analys under ansatsen att de naturliga bränderna har samma brandpåverkan i enlighet med Ingbergs teori om lika areor. Det genomförs beräkningar för fullständiga brandförlopp med 800 samt 1600 MJ/m2 i dimensionerande brandbelastning. Totalt 258 fall med olika parametrar och för tolv av dessa fall analyseras resultaten nogrannare. För att avgöra om en brand är på osäker sida jämfört med normenliga kravnivåer görs två jämförelser i tidsdomänen mot tidskravet för standardbrand och en jämförelse i temperaturdomänen genom att analysera ett ståltvärsnitts temperatur mot dess kritiska temperatur.   Av de 12 närmare studerade bränderna överskrids nominella krav i sex av dem. De bränder som ger upphov till överskridna krav är bränder i rum med låg tillgång till ventilation och ytskikt med låg termisk tröghet. Resultaten är desamma för den lägre och den högre brandbelastningen.  Modellen med lika areor bedöms däremot ej vara komplett då metoden ej kan appliceras på vilken temperaturdata som helst då underliggande faktorer som kännedom om ventilation och bränsle kan neglegeras. Vidare bedöms det finnas risker med metoder då brandpåverkan riskerar att dölja kännedom om avgivna strålningsnivåer från branden som kan ge upphov till stora värmeflöden till bärande byggnadsdelar. / Today's building regulations regarding strength for fire-exposed structures rest heavily on the fire impact of the standard fire curve. However, this fire curve does not represent a natural fire very well. Eks (The National Board of Housing and Urban Development's application of European design rules) also provides the opportunity to use natural fire processes to evaluate the strength of a building part. Research in fire technology has shown that there are methods that can quantitatively compare the severity of different fires on load bearing structures with each other, these methods have been developed through the history of fire technical research.  The first model was presented by S. H. Ingberg (1928) eleven years after the standard fire curve as we know it today (EN 13501-2, 2016) gained a foothold in fire safety science. Ingberg formulated a hypothesis based on a large number of experiments on full-scale fires where the approach was that the quantified fire impact of a fire could be identified over time as the area limited at the top of the fire temperature, and at the lower edge of a baseline temperature determined by the material properties of the load bearing structure. Ingberg's approach was based on actual fires compared to the standard fire curve  (Ingberg, 1928). This theory has been questioned since Ingberg's experiments did not take into account the different ventilation conditions of the fire rooms.   In order to investigate how load bearing structures designed with the standard fire curve compares to two methods with natural fire processes, a quantitative analysis is carried out under the assumption that the natural fires have the same fire impact in accordance with Ingberg's theory of equal areas. Calculations are carried out for natural fires with design fire loads 800 and 1600 MJ/m2. A total of 258 cases with different parameters and for twelve of these cases the results are analysed more closely. To determine whether a fire is on uncertain side compared to normative requirement levels, two comparisons are made in the time domain against the time requirement for standard fire and one comparison in the temperature domain by comparing the temperature of a steel cross-section against its critical temperature.   Of the twelwe closer studied fires, six of them exceeded nominal requirements. The fires that exceeded requirements are fires with low access to ventilation and rooms with linings of low thermal interia. The results are the same for the lower and higher fire loads.  However, the model with equal areas is not considered complete as the method cannot be applied to any given temperature data as underlying factors such as knowledge of ventilation and fuel can be ignored. Furthermore, it is considered that there are risks with the methods as the equal fire severity risks concealing knowledge of radiation levels emitted from the fire that can give rise to large heat flows to the load bearing structure.