Agency directors, program administrators and planners as well as U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service regional federal aid supervisors provided input that defined 22 factors considered most important in determining management effectiveness of state fish and wildlife agencies. I grouped the factors into the following six categories: public support and awareness, conflict resolution, politics, planning and funding, agency management and personnel. State agency directors, commissioners and legislators ranked the factors. In cooperation with the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Organization of Wildlife Planners, I conducted case studies of nine state fish and wildlife agencies widely recognized by their peers as being particularly effective relative to the identified factors. Questionnaires and interviews with 845 agency members and constituents revealed effective fish and wildlife agencies had much in common with the excellent companies described by Peters and Waterman (1982) in In Search of Excellence. Effective agencies were proactive in dealing with issues and frequently among the nation's leading agencies in dealing with issues of national scope. Effective agencies used a variety of techniques to understand public desires and involve the public in making important decisions. Effective agencies grant their employees much freedom to make decisions and try new ideas without fear of punishment for making mistakes. They are committed to the personal development of employees. Effective agencies are good planners, with well defined missions and goals. Personal missions of employees are highly congruent with agency missions, resulting ina missionary-like zeal for their work. Effective agencies have a strong biological basis for their decisions and maintain credibility by balancing biological factors with public opinion. Effective agencies have stable political environments and experienced, enlightened resource management professionals as their leaders. Leaders emphasize participative decision making and teamwork. Finally, effective agencies have strong public support and are effective in mobilizing that support when important policy decisions are made. Many specific examples that illustrate the characteristics of effective agencies are discussed. / Ph. D.

Subsistence fishing is impacting on freshwater and marine biodiversity to the extent of extinction of some fish species. These illegal subsistence fishermen have created a huge impact on marine biodiversity, irrespective of marine and riverine laws that are put in place and practiced. There have been attempt to provide subsistence fishing extension officer services to facilitate in bringing subsistence fishermen fully into the management system, in an orderly and equitable manner, by facilitating the granting of formal subsistence fishing right, providing permits via policy management and effective rules via permit applications. However the follow up process as to whether these policies and rules administered is effective or not has not been measured. This investigation attempts to identify potential fishing that should be considered as suitable for subsistence fisheries in selected highly exploitable areas. Though it cannot be confirmed from previous studies that some relevant organizations are not fully taking their responsibilities, the study will further enable exploration of options and challenges associated with future management of subsistence fisheries and provide recommendations to enable proper implementation of the policies and legislations. / Environmental Sciences / M. Env. Sc. (Agriculture and Environmental Affairs)

Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The efficient management of renewable resources may ensure sustainable income to communities and countries. In the past the mathematical modelling used in the management decisions, in South Africa, was based on biological considerations only. In this thesis we include economic factors in the models and aim to determine steady state harvesting levels such that a maximum present value of all future revenues may be reached. A bio-economical approach is followed throughout the study and applied to the South African Cape Rock Lobster (Jasus lalandii) resource. We first address the problem using the simplest surplus production models. The model is applied to the Cape Rock Lobster, finding that the economical factors do indeed influence the steady state results, emphasising that they should be incorporated in the modelling process. A more descriptive two-sex-delay-difference model is then applied, which includes delay times for juveniles to reach sexual maturity and distinguishes between sexes. Yet further involved stage-class models are also studied and we propose a solution to the non-linear programming problem reached. These models may assist decision makers in future as knowledge on, for example, the growth of the two sexes, proper size limits and the influence of price differences are gained. Finally, we propose a harvesting strategy where catch is taken from alternative spatial lanes and apply here results from reaction diffusion theory. This theoretical approach might provide guidelines to new and underdeveloped fisheries in future, but also influence current inshore fisheries towards new management strategies. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doeltreffende bestuur van hernubare hulpbronne kan 'n volhoubare ekonomiese opbrengs aan gemeenskappe en lande verseker. In die verlede is die wiskundige modelle wat in die besluitnemingsproses gebruik is, in Suid Afrika, gebaseer op biologiese oorwegings alleen. In hierdie studie word ook ekonomiese faktore in die modelle ingesluit en word ewewigstoestande bepaal vir vangste, sodanig dat 'n maksimum huidige waarde van toekomstige inkomste uit 'n vissery bereik word. 'n Bio-ekonomiese benadering word deurgaans gevolg en modelle word toegepas op die Suid-Afrikaanse Weskus Kreefbron (Jasus lalandii). Die studie begin deur basiese surplus produksie modelle te gebruik. Die resultate van die toepassing op die Weskus Kreefbron toon dat die ekonomiese faktore 'n groot invloed op die voorgestelde ewewigstoestand van die populasie het. Dit benadruk dus die feit dat hierdie faktore in die modelleringsproses ingesluit behoort te word. Meer beskrywende twee-geslag-vertragings-verskil modelle word daarna toegepas, en sluit in 'n vertragings periode vir vis om 'n volwasse stadium te bereik. Hierdie tydfaktor verskil dikwels vir mannetjies en wyfies en daarom word hier 'n twee-geslag model gebruik. Meer gevorderde klasse modelle word ook bespreek. Ons stel 'n oplossing vir hierdie nie-lineêre programmeringsprobleem voor. Hierdie gevorderde modelle mag in die toekoms handige hulpmiddels wees wanneer inligting rakende 'n spesie gesoek word. Sulke inligting mag insluit die groeitempos van mannetjies en wyfies, geskikte grootte beperkings vir vangste en die invloed van prysverskille vir verskillende groottes vis. 'n Nuwe vangste strategie word ook voorgestel waar vangste slegs geneem word uit alternatiewe ruimtelike bane en pas ons hier resultate uit die reaksie-diffusie teorie toe. Hierdie teoretiese oplossings mag riglyne bied wanneer nuwe visserye in die toekoms ontgin word, maar ook huidige visserye beïnvloed in die rigting van 'n nuwe bestuur strategie.

La perchaude (Perca flavescens) constitue une ressource socioéconomique de grande importance dans le Lac Saint-Pierre (Québec, Canada). Bien que ce lac fluvial soit désigné réserve de la biosphère par l’UNESCO, le statut de la perchaude est préoccupant. Afin de permettre à l’espèce de persister en fonction des diverses pressions anthropiques, il est important de comprendre sa dynamique populationnelle et les mécanismes qui en sont responsables. La perchaude est connue pour sa philopatrie ; le fait de toujours se reproduire à son site de naissance peut entraîner la subdivision d’une espèce en de multiples populations, où chacune pourra être pourvue d’adaptations locales distinctes. Il est possible d’étudier ces processus à l’aide des signaux génétiques associés à la reproduction des individus. Toutefois, une faible différentiation génétique entre les populations du Lac Saint-Pierre est envisagée en raison de la colonisation récente du système (moins de 8000 ans). L’objectif de cette étude est de déterminer s’il existe plusieurs populations de perchaude dans le Lac Saint-Pierre. Les simulations réalisées ont révélé que l’utilisation de marqueurs AFLP (amplified fragment length polymorphism), permettant une analyse globale du génome, affiche une meilleure détection de la différentiation des populations que celle des marqueurs microsatellites. Afin d’associer les individus à leur site de naissance, la méthode d’AFLP et des microsatellites ont été utilisées sur des larves capturées suite à l’éclosion des oeufs. Trois analyses distinctes d’AFLP ont indiqué une corrélation entre la composition génétique des individus et des sites géographiques, confirmant ainsi la présence de plusieurs populations sympatriques dans le Lac Saint-Pierre, découlant vraisemblablement de la philopatrie de l’espèce. L’absence de différentiation génétique relatée par les marqueurs microsatellites vient confirmer l’importance du choix des marqueurs génétiques. Bien que la différentiation génétique observée soit relativement faible, la gestion de la perchaude devrait tenir compte de la dynamique des populations distinctes dans ce système. / Yellow perch (Perca flavescens) is a commercially-exploited freshwater fish species in Lake Saint-Pierre (Quebec, Canada). Even if this fluvial lake is designated as a biosphere reserve by UNESCO, the yellow perch status is of concern. To ensure the persistence of species facing to anthropogenic pressures, understanding dynamics and mechanism that structure populations are of major importance. Because the habitat characteristics are spatially structured and this species is known to display natal site fidelity, a subdivision of the species in multiple populations and local adaptations may occur. It is possible to detect these processes according to genetic signal associated with individuals’ reproduction. However, low genetic differentiation is hypothesised due to the recent colonization of the system (< 8 K years). This study aims at determining if there are multiple populations of yellow perch in Lake Saint-Pierre. Simulations was first performed to confirm that population differentiation is better depicted by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) than microsatellite markers. In order to associate individuals to their site of birth, larvae captured after hatching were used. A survey of the variation throughout the entire genome was then performed by using the AFLP approach and variations at microsatellite loci were used to further investigate the organization of these populations. Three distinct AFLP analyses indicated a correlation between genetic composition of individuals and spawning sites, and thus confirmed the presence of multiple sympatric populations in Lake Saint-Pierre, resulting likely from natal site fidelity. At the opposite, the lack of genetic differentiation reported by microsatellites markers confirms the importance of the choice of genetic markers. While the genetic differentiation is very low, the management of this species should take into account the existence of distinct population structures in this system.

In this PhD thesis, the utilisation of interactive simulation in a higher education e-learning classroom environment was explored and its effectiveness was experimentally evaluated by engaging university students in a classroom setting. Two case studies were carried out for the experimental evaluation of the proposed novel interactive simulation e-learning tool. In the first case study, the use of interactive agent-based simulation was demonstrated in teaching complex adaptive system concepts in the area of ecology to university students and its effectiveness was measured in a classroom environment. In a lab intervention using a novel interactive agent-based simulation (built in NetLogo). For the purpose of teaching complex adaptive systems such as the concept of spatially-explicit predator prey interaction to undergraduate and postgraduate students in the University of Stirling. The effectiveness of using the interactive simulation was investigated by using the NetLogo software and compared with non-interactive simulation built using R programming language. The experimental evaluation was carried out using a total of 38 students. Results of this case study demonstrates that the students found interactive agent-based simulation to be more engaging, effective and user friendly as compare to the non-interactive simulation. In the second case study, a novel interactive simulation game was developed (in NetLogo) and its effectiveness in teaching and learning of complex concepts in the field of marine ecology was demonstrated. This case study makes a twofold contribution. Firstly, the presentation of a novel interactive simulation game, developed specifically for use in undergraduate and postgraduate courses in the area of marine ecology. This novel interactive simulation game is designed to help learners to explore a mathematical model of fishery population growth and understand the principles for sustainable fisheries. Secondly, the comparison of two different methods of using the interactive simulation game within the classroom was investigated: learning from active exploration of the interactive simulation game compared with learning from an expert demonstration of the interactive simulation game. The case study demonstrated the effectiveness of learning from passive viewing of an expert demonstration of the interactive simulation game over learning from active exploration of the interactive simulation game without expert guidance, for teaching complex concepts sustainable fishery management. A mixed methods study design was used, using both quantitative and qualitative methods to compare the learning effectiveness of the two approaches, and the students’ preferences. The investigation was carried out by running interventions with a mixture of undergraduate and postgraduate students from the University of Stirling in a classroom environment. A total of 74 participants were recruited from undergraduate and postgraduate level for both case studies. This thesis demonstrated through two case studies effectiveness of the proposed novel interactive simulation in university e-learning classroom environment.

Latitudinal patterns in reef fish assemblages reflect the influence of long-term environmental conditions, evolutionary processes and the recent, short-term influence of fishing. Long-term processes generate the typically common latitudinal patterns in reef fish assemblages, such as decreases in diversity and herbivory towards higher latitudes. These patterns reflect the global gradient in water temperature and the isolation of temperate regions from the tropics. Fishing also influences reef fish assemblages in that it decreases the abundance of large-bodied carnivore species on reefs, often leading to over-exploitation, depletion and in some cases the extirpation of populations. Indirectly, the removal of these large-bodied carnivores can influence the abundance of their prey, leading to an increase in non-target species. This study examines the latitudinal patterns in reef fish assemblages across a unique biogeographic region, the temperate Western Australian coast, and incorporates an investigation of the influence of fishing on the structure of these assemblages. Seven regions across seven degrees of latitude and seven degrees of longitude covering approximately 1500 km of coastline were sampled. Fish assemblages were characterised at each region using diver operated stereo-video transects. At each region, four locations, and within each location, four reefs were surveyed totalling 1344 transects. A significant gradient in water temperature exists with latitude and longitude. Along the Western Australian coast, and in contrast to other regions species diversity of reef fish increased towards higher latitudes and there was no evidence for a decrease in the biomass and abundance of herbivorous reef fish. The presence of the poleward flowing warm water Leeuwin current combined with the absence of major extinction events means the temperate Western Australian coast contrasts with global latitudinal trends in reef fish assemblage structure. The unique biogeographic history of temperate Western Australia has also generated a high degree of endemism among reef fish. Nearly 30 % of the species found along the west coast in this study are endemic to Western Australia, with the narrow range of these species playing an important role in the large scale patterns and spatial vi heterogeneity in reef fish assemblage structure. Furthermore, many of these endemic species are large-bodied carnivores and targeted by fishers. The impact of fishing on the abundance of large-bodied carnivores throughout the Western Australian temperate region is clear both spatially and temporally. The distribution of fishing effort is greatest along the west coast and decreases towards the south following the gradient in SST. Along the west coast, high levels of fishing effort have reduced the biomass and abundance of target carnivores to well below the standing biomass of the south coast where a low level of fishing effort occurs. This reduction in biomass is related to the historical declines in catch per unit effort (CPUE) of many key target species. These target species include endemic species such as Choerodon rubescens, Glaucosoma herbraicum, Epinephilides armatus Nemadactylus valenciennesi and Achoerodus gouldii.

Ricefield based fish seed production (RBFSP) in irrigated spring (boro) ricefields after initial introductions by external promoters has spread among farmers in parts of Northwest Bangladesh. This approach to producing juvenile fish, rather than by specialised geographically clustered hatchery and nursery enterprises, has been recognised as a strategy for decentralised production that makes large high quality seed available locally and supports food fish production. RBFSP has been promoted by the international NGO CARE as part of a process to improve rice-based livelihoods of farming households using a farmer field school (FFS) approach in two consecutive projects between 1993 and 2005. The approach is technically simple and is based on the stocking of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) eggs and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) broodfish in ricefields. As a new approach to farmer level fish seed production, its livelihood impacts on the farming households as well as associated actors; its adoption, adaptation and rejection process in farming households; and its cost-effectives for dissemination at farmer level were not well understood. This thesis mainly applies the concept of the sustainable livelihood approach (SLA) using tools and processes of the growing family of participatory research. A systems approach was used to ensure that the key stakeholders including households, community and extension organizations were included. The study was initiated with a well-being analysis of community households to identify poorer households before exploring impacts of RBFSP on poorer producing households (RF) compared to non-producing (NRF) households based on one-off and longitudinal surveys. Livelihoods impacts on other actors linked directly and indirectly with RBFSP were also investigated. The adoption process of RBFSP at the household level and the cost-effectiveness of its promotion were assessed. Impact studies at the household level showed that RF households were significantly larger and had lower levels of formal education than NRF. Adoption of RBFSP had improved practical skills and hence substantially improved human capital in RF households. RF households tended to have more of their ricefish plots located adjacent to their households. Poor and intermediate adopters had smaller riceplots than better-off households but higher seed production efficiencies (poor-315.1 kg fingerlings/ha; intermediate-419.1 kg fingerlings/ha) than better-off households (294.6 kg fingerlings/ha). In addition to direct consumption of large fingerlings, RF households restocked them for further growth in their household ponds in doing so increasing yields by 60%. Fish consumption increased substantially in RF households based on their own production reducing their dependency on purchase from markets. The year round longitudinal survey revealed that activities for RBFSP were compatible with their existing rice-based agriculture activities for household members including men, women and children. The relatively limited income from fingerling production improved cash flow in the low income months. Consumption of large size fingerlings from ricefields provided nutrient dense food in the ‘hungry gap’ months when supplies of wild fish were poor, smoothing consumption. Apart from RF households, RBFSP extended its livelihoods impacts to a wide range of actors in and around the seed producing community. Poor fry traders were found to be key actors in the spread and support of RBFSP. On average fry traders supplied fingerlings to 35 foodfish producers within a mean distance of 5 Km from producing households in a community where RBFSP was well established. The end users (foodfish producers) included households with their own ponds, ponds with multiple ownership and larger waterbodies leased by small groups. Locally available RFBSP juveniles were attractive to each of these groups, supplementing hatchery derived seed. A large number of complex socio-cultural and technical factors were related to household level adoption of RBFSP. The major factors included use of cash generated to prevent distress sales of rice; lack of requirement to use pesticide in ricefields; meeting the household consumption demand; capacity to restock fingerlings in ponds; lack of any negative effects on rice production; increased non-stocked fish production in riceplots; simplicity of the technology; ease of fish harvest from riceplots; increased ability to gift fingerlings/foodfish to relatives and neighbours; more efficient use of both riceplot and irrigation pumps. The most important reasons for households not attempting or quickly rejecting RBFSP were labour conflicts with other activities. However, lost access to the riceplots through changes in tenure was the most common cause of late rejection by households who had practiced RBFSP for several years after withdrawal of CARE support. Location of fish seed producing plots close to the homesteads facilitated household women to contribute to seed production activities through feeding and looking after fish. Women were able to decide and control resources generated from fingerling sales as well as choosing to gift fingerlings to their relatives. Informal transfer of fingerlings in this way stimulated spread of RBFSP. Decentralised fish seed production was promoted through FFS very cost effectively. The introduction of an improved strain of Nile tilapia (GIFT) broodfish greatly enhanced the returns from decentralised seed production based on common carp alone. High levels of secondary adoption improved benefits from promoting RBFSP. The major benefit derived from the improved returns to food fish farmers using locally produced seed. Higher levels of net present value (NPV) and benefit cost ratio (BCR) were achieved based on promotion of mixed-sex tilapia in RBFSP than mono-sex tilapia produced in a large scale central hatchery. Cost-effectiveness in terms of multiplier development impacts on ramification of secondary adopters and, income of fry traders and foodfish producers, RBFSP also showed better performance than a mono-sex tilapia hatchery.

La perchaude (Perca flavescens) constitue une ressource socioéconomique de grande importance dans le Lac Saint-Pierre (Québec, Canada). Bien que ce lac fluvial soit désigné réserve de la biosphère par l’UNESCO, le statut de la perchaude est préoccupant. Afin de permettre à l’espèce de persister en fonction des diverses pressions anthropiques, il est important de comprendre sa dynamique populationnelle et les mécanismes qui en sont responsables. La perchaude est connue pour sa philopatrie ; le fait de toujours se reproduire à son site de naissance peut entraîner la subdivision d’une espèce en de multiples populations, où chacune pourra être pourvue d’adaptations locales distinctes. Il est possible d’étudier ces processus à l’aide des signaux génétiques associés à la reproduction des individus. Toutefois, une faible différentiation génétique entre les populations du Lac Saint-Pierre est envisagée en raison de la colonisation récente du système (moins de 8000 ans). L’objectif de cette étude est de déterminer s’il existe plusieurs populations de perchaude dans le Lac Saint-Pierre. Les simulations réalisées ont révélé que l’utilisation de marqueurs AFLP (amplified fragment length polymorphism), permettant une analyse globale du génome, affiche une meilleure détection de la différentiation des populations que celle des marqueurs microsatellites. Afin d’associer les individus à leur site de naissance, la méthode d’AFLP et des microsatellites ont été utilisées sur des larves capturées suite à l’éclosion des oeufs. Trois analyses distinctes d’AFLP ont indiqué une corrélation entre la composition génétique des individus et des sites géographiques, confirmant ainsi la présence de plusieurs populations sympatriques dans le Lac Saint-Pierre, découlant vraisemblablement de la philopatrie de l’espèce. L’absence de différentiation génétique relatée par les marqueurs microsatellites vient confirmer l’importance du choix des marqueurs génétiques. Bien que la différentiation génétique observée soit relativement faible, la gestion de la perchaude devrait tenir compte de la dynamique des populations distinctes dans ce système. / Yellow perch (Perca flavescens) is a commercially-exploited freshwater fish species in Lake Saint-Pierre (Quebec, Canada). Even if this fluvial lake is designated as a biosphere reserve by UNESCO, the yellow perch status is of concern. To ensure the persistence of species facing to anthropogenic pressures, understanding dynamics and mechanism that structure populations are of major importance. Because the habitat characteristics are spatially structured and this species is known to display natal site fidelity, a subdivision of the species in multiple populations and local adaptations may occur. It is possible to detect these processes according to genetic signal associated with individuals’ reproduction. However, low genetic differentiation is hypothesised due to the recent colonization of the system (< 8 K years). This study aims at determining if there are multiple populations of yellow perch in Lake Saint-Pierre. Simulations was first performed to confirm that population differentiation is better depicted by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) than microsatellite markers. In order to associate individuals to their site of birth, larvae captured after hatching were used. A survey of the variation throughout the entire genome was then performed by using the AFLP approach and variations at microsatellite loci were used to further investigate the organization of these populations. Three distinct AFLP analyses indicated a correlation between genetic composition of individuals and spawning sites, and thus confirmed the presence of multiple sympatric populations in Lake Saint-Pierre, resulting likely from natal site fidelity. At the opposite, the lack of genetic differentiation reported by microsatellites markers confirms the importance of the choice of genetic markers. While the genetic differentiation is very low, the management of this species should take into account the existence of distinct population structures in this system.

This thesis is presented as a collection of five papers and one report, each of which has been either published after peer review or submitted for publication. It covers a broad range of applied statistical methods, from deterministic modelling to integrated Bayesian modelling using MCMC, via bootstrapping and stochastic simulation. It also covers a broad range of subjects, from analysis of recreational fishing diaries, to genetic mark recapture for wombats. However, it focuses on practical applications of statistics to the management of wild populations. The first chapter (Hoyle and Jellyman 2002, published in Marine and Freshwater Research) applies a simple deterministic yield per recruit model to a fishery management problem: possible overexploitation of the New Zealand longfin eel. The chapter has significant implications for longfin eel fishery management. The second chapter (Hoyle and Cameron 2003, published in Fisheries Management and Ecology) focuses on uncertainty in the classical paradigm, by investigating the best way to estimate bootstrap confidence limits on recreational harvest and catch rate using catch diary data. The third chapter (Hoyle et al., in press with Molecular Ecology Notes) takes a different path by looking at genetic mark-recapture in a fisheries management context. Genetic mark-recapture was developed for wildlife abundance estimation but has not previously been applied to fish harvest rate estimation. The fourth chapter (Hoyle and Banks, submitted) addresses genetic mark-recapture, but in the wildlife context for estimates of abundance rather than harvest rate. Our approach uses individual-based modeling and Bayesian analysis to investigate the effect of shadows on abundance estimates and confidence intervals, and to provide guidelines for developing sets of loci for populations of different sizes and levels of relatedness. The fifth chapter (Hoyle and Maunder 2004, Animal Biodiversity and Conservation) applies integrated analysis techniques developed in fisheries to the modeling of protected species population dynamics - specifically the north-eastern spotted dolphin, Stenella attenuata. It combines data from a number of different sources in a single statistical model, and estimates parameters using both maximum likelihood and Bayesian MCMC. The sixth chapter (Hoyle 2002, peer reviewed and published as Queensland Department of Primary Industries Information Series) results directly from a pressing management issue: developing new management procedures for the Queensland east coast Spanish mackerel fishery. It uses an existing stock assessment as a starting point for an integrated Bayesian management strategy evaluation. Possibilities for further research have been identified within the subject areas of each chapter, both within the chapters and in the final discussion chapter.

Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii is an iconic freshwater angling species that has suffered declines in abundance and is now listed as a nationally vulnerable species. Despite recognition of the need for biological knowledge to provide future management directions, little is known of its ecology. This thesis examines that ecology to provide new knowledge and recommendations for improved conservation management. (For complete abstract open document)