Authenticity in agriculture, food and resource markets has been an ongoing policy challenge to regulators and food industries, and a major concern to consumers given the complex nature of global food supply chains and the increasing spate of market fraud reports across the world. In a bid to boost their economic return, some firms may engage in illicit activities that comprise authenticity including: adulteration, substitution of substandard products, unapproved enhancements of food products, false and misleading quality claims. Such actions, often times, create negative reputation externalities for other agri-food firms in the sector, and may also result in trade conflicts and border rejections; while consumers incur transaction (search) costs in verifying product attributes due to quality uncertainty. This dissertation focuses on collective reputation and contributes to an understanding of authenticity issues in agri-food and resource markets. The analysis examines the role of industry-led quality assurance systems and evolving technologies in enhancing authenticity signals and reducing information asymmetry in the context of market fraud and collective reputation within food and resource supply chains. This dissertation consists of three papers. Paper 1 examines technological solutions to authenticity issues in the context of international trade. The paper explores the role of an emerging authenticity technology, International Barcode of Life (IBOL) in strengthening the enforcement of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES). The focus of the analysis is CITES restrictions on commercial trade in the endangered species tree of Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra). The first paper provides an overview of the applications of the IBOL technology in species identification to date. A graphical partial equilibrium trade model examines three scenarios consisting of adoption of IBOL authenticity technology by a single major importing country, multilateral adoption, and adoption by the exporting country. The scenarios suggest that a threat of multilateral testing for the authenticity of imported rosewood could eliminate cross border commercial trade in the endangered species. Upstream testing and certification of authenticity in the exporting country could increase importers’ confidence and the demand for legally harvested rosewood. The results suggest that technological solutions to authenticity issues in international markets have the potential to reduce quality uncertainty and could act as a complement to regulatory enforcement under CITES. Paper 2 explores the industry-led Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) quality assurance system for Canadian wines to examine how an industry seeks to signal authenticity assurances to protect its collective reputation. Hedonic and Probit models are estimated using data on wine attributes sourced from the Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO). Hedonic models examine whether VQA certification, versus other collective and individual reputation signals (region, winery), elicits a price premium. The Probit analysis examines factors that determine a winery’s decision to seek VQA certification for a specific wine. The results suggest that while a number of attributes including VQA certification, percentage alcohol content, sweetness (sugar level), volume of wine supplied and vintage, have a significant influence on the price of wine, VQA adds a premium beyond other signals of reputation (winery and region). The magnitude of the effect of individual and collective reputation on the price of wine differs for the different types/colours of wine. The Probit model results suggest that wineries that supply large volumes of wine (more than 1000 cases) in Ontario and produce icewine and non-blended wines have a higher tendency of seeking VQA status. The results imply that VQA could be used as a shorthand for quality, while premium and reputation driven by authenticity in the wine industry could serve as an incentive for other agri-food industries to establish similar quality assurance systems. Paper 3 examines the incidence of mislabelling and substitution in fish markets using supply, demand and welfare analysis. The paper focuses on incentives for the private sector (retailers) or a third party to adopt IBOL technology to protect their reputation and for supply chain monitoring. The feasibility of IBOL technology for a typical retail store in Canada is assessed using a simple simulation analysis. The analysis suggests that the costs of switching to the IBOL system, the number of retailers already using the technology and their market shares are likely to influence a retailer’s adoption of the technology. The ease of catching cheaters along the fish supply chain through third party monitoring is expected to depend on the accuracy of the technology in detecting fraud, the sampling frequency (rate) and rate of species substitution; while enforcement of legal penalties and other costs would serve as a disincentive to cheat as these costs negatively affect expected profit. The simulation analysis suggests that presently IBOL technology appears to be feasible for a typical retail store in Canada if testing is done in an external facility, but may not be feasible if fixed and other costs associated with the IBOL system are considered. The paper suggests that reducing the size of the technology to a hand-held tool and coordination of small scale retailers are potential ways to make the technology affordable and expand its use.

Food fraud can be traced back to the beginning of second century, but it was not until 2013 that the phenomenon of food fraud received the definition “intentional violation of the rules motivated by economical or financial gain” by the EU. In Sweden, the Swedish Food Agency (Livsmedelsverket) together with the municipal food inspectors work against food fraud. It is essential to detect food fraud in order to protect the Swedish consumers safety and health. The aim of this study is to assess consumers experience about food fraud and their mistrust to any food groups as well as consumers awareness about whistle blowing functions. In addition, differences between consumers and municipal food inspector’s estimation of the extent of food fraud in Sweden will be investigated. The study revealed that 51 % of the consumers have experienced food fraud and 48 % have experienced fear of being exposed to food fraud. Approximately 16 % also have a lack of trust to some food groups. The municipal food inspectors usually only control fraud when receiving tips but only a relatively small group of consumers are aware of the whistle blowing functions. An interesting pattern throughout the report is that meat and meat products scores significant high, both regarding consumers experience of fraud, avoidance of food groups and in ranking of most exposed food group. The study showed no significant difference between the consumers and the municipal food inspector’s estimation of the existent of food fraud in Sweden.

Master of Science / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Justin Kastner / Food production is changing in response to an expanding global population. The ability to distribute and process ingredients amongst many individuals and countries has brought economic benefits while also creating new problems. By increasing the complexity of the supply chain, the food industry has birthed new dynamics, thus creating new opportunities for contamination, fraud, and other threats. One threat dynamic is the varying levels of food safety and quality control at different nodes along a supply chain. Contaminations pinpoint weaknesses of a supply chain, and such weaknesses could be exploited for harm. One way foods are intentionally contaminated is through food fraud. Food fraud involves substitution, mislabeling, dilution, and other means of criminal deception. Routine testing by an independent science-based group led to the discovery of one the largest scales of substitution and mislabeling in history—the 2013 adulteration of beef products with horsemeat. Commonly referred to as the horsemeat scandal of 2013, this important event in the history of the global food system affected several regions, hundreds of products, and thousands of retailers and consumers. To date, this scandal was one of the largest incidents of food fraud. Mostly based in the European Union, the horsemeat scandal prompted the European Commission to take regulatory action. The European Union’s policy response included the creation of a five-point plan that addresses the different facets associated with the scandal. The five-point plan sought to strengthen food fraud prevention; testing programs; horse passports; official control, implementation, penalties; and origin labelling. The five-point plan is intended to decrease the fraud opportunity for the adulteration of beef with horsemeat. According to the crime triangle, a concept frequently cited in the field of criminology, fraud opportunity has three main elements: the victims, the fraudsters, and the guardian and hurdle gaps. When any of these elements change, the opportunity for a fraudster to commit a crime also changes. The research question of this thesis explores the policy responses of the European Commission. The Commission’s five-point plan targets the three elements of fraud opportunity; therefore, future fraud opportunity for the adulteration of beef products with horsemeat will theoretically decrease.

Defesa dos alimentos ou Food Defense são técnicas desenvolvidas para a proteção e segurança do alimento sendo aplicadas em toda a cadeia produtiva. O princípio que norteia a defesa dos alimentos abrange técnicas para o controle e gestão da qualidade na indústria e técnicas de controle contra contaminação cruzada, intencional ou não. Os atentados terroristas de 11 de setembro de 2011 desencadearam uma série de medidas protecionistas por parte dos EUA e por serem um dos principais importadores de bens de consumo mundial, impactou em todos os países que possuem transações econômicas com os EUA. Acontecimentos recentes relacionados a fraudes em alimentos têm enfatizado a importância de proteger a cadeia de suprimentos de alimentos, necessitando a coordenação de esforços para a segurança/defesa destes, oferecendo a melhor proteção possível. Por sua vez empresas que optam por ter relações comerciais com os EUA precisam atender e compreender as medidas que o país adotou para a proteção contra os ataques terroristas. Junto às medidas de defesa do alimento (Food Defense), exigências paralelas para evitar fraudes em alimentos (Food Fraud) também são exigidas. Esses atos fraudulentos também podem ocorrer devido a motivação econômica, conhecida como EMA - Economically Motivated Adulteration. As técnicas de Food Defense e Food Fraud abordadas nesse trabalho tem o objetivo de descrever as possíveis formas de contaminação e adulteração nos insumos utilizados por uma indústria de pequeno porte para a produção de tempero cárneos bem como atender a nova legislação norte americana para possíveis exportações, criando um padrão de trabalho para a empresa e que possa servir de elemento replicador para outras empresas que possuem relações com os EUA. Os resultados permitiram identificar os pontos vulneráveis na fábrica e facilitaram a criação de um plano Food Defense e um plano Food Fraud no qual foram descritas as possíveis formas intencionais ou não de contaminação e adulteração em insumos utilizados pela empresa. / Food Defense are techniques developed for the protection and safety of food and are applied throughout the production chain. The guiding principle of food protection encompasses techniques for quality control and management in industry and control techniques against cross-contamination, intentional or otherwise. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2011 triggered a series of protectionist measures by the United States, one of the main importers of world consumer goods, which had an impact on all countries that have economic transactions with it. Recent events related to food fraud have emphasized the importance of protecting the food supply chain, necessitating the coordination of food security / defense efforts, offering the best protection possible. In turn, companies that choose to have commercial relations with the USA need to attend and understand the protection measures that the country has adopted to protect against terrorist attacks. Along with the Food Defense measures, parallel demands to avoid food fraud are also required. These fraudulent acts can also occur due to economic motivation (also known as EMA - Economically Motivated Adulteration). The techniques of Food Defense and Food Fraud addressed in this project have the objective of describing the possible forms of contamination and adulteration in the inputs used by a small industry to produce meat seasoning as well as to meet the new North American legislation for possible exports, creating a working standard for the company that can serve as a replicator for other companies that have relations with the USA. The results allowed to identify the vulnerabilities in the factory and facilitated the creation of a Food Defense plan and a Food Fraud plan in which were described the possible intentional or non-intentional forms of contamination and adulteration in inputs used by the company.

This disertation deals with geographical authentification of different types of spices and spice preparations. Investigated spice species were garlic (Allium sativum), ground pepper (Capsicum anuum), and dried carrot (Daucus carota). Theoretical part of the disertation describes main qualitative parameters of the examined species and production technology, means of food adulteration and statistic methods used in chemometrics. The aim of this dissertation was to verify the hypothesis whether it is possible to use targeted analytical techniques commonly used in quality control of spices and condiments, and statistical processing of measured data to distinguish samples of spices and condiments of different geographical origin. The use of non-targeted analysis was also investigated. Samples of garlic and ground pepper were used for targeted analysis. The examined parameters were dry matter and moisture of the sample, ash content, total phenolic content according to Folin-Ciocaulteu, carbohydrate content, alliin concentration, total nitrogen content, total color pigment (ASTA), pH of aqueous extract, total fat content, and concentration of selected elements (Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Mg, Na, P, Zn). The instrumental techniques used were molecular absorption spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry and high performance liquid chromatography. The obtained data were statistically processed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and principal component analysis (PCA). Using statistical analysis significant differences between samples that came from more distant areas were found. However, samples from closer areas could not be distinguished. The researched hypothesis could not be unequivocally confirmed or refuted. Metabolic fingerprint of carrot samples was determined using non-targeted analysis. Metabolic analysis was performed using the tandem LC-TOF-MS technique. The data were processed by recursive peak extraction (BRE) and subsequently uvaluated with PCA. The samples were divided into clusters according to their origin. Targeted and non-targeted techniques have great potential in verifying the geographical authenticity of different types of spices. However, the main condition is consistent and sufficient sampling, guaranteed information on the origin of the sample and obtaining a sufficient amount of input data for statistical analysis.

The research utilizes a Discrete Choice Experiment to assess consumer preferences and determine blockchain-based food traceability's relative importance and utility in the food purchasing process. The study specifically tests five selected attributes of olive oil, including price, organic label, olive oil type, country of origin, and blockchain traceability. Additionally, a survey is conducted to evaluate Swedish consumers' knowledge levels concerning blockchain technology and its application in the food system to improve transparency. The study also explores consumer evaluations of safety and sustainability information and their willingness to pay price premiums for food products verified for safety and environmental claims. The findings indicate that while Swedish consumers possess moderate knowledge of blockchain technology, their understanding of its specific application in food traceability is limited. Nevertheless, consumers highly value access to accurate information about the safety and sustainability of their food purchases. A considerable portion of respondents express a willingness to pay a premium for products verified for safety, authenticity, and sustainability. The choice experiment results reveal that blockchain-based food traceability ranks lower in relative importance than the price and organic label but higher than olive oil type and country of origin. The findings of this study contribute to bridging the existing gap in the understanding of blockchain-based food traceability technology among Swedish consumers.