<p>The discovery and utilization of novel starches with unique superb properties are highly demanded for modern industrial uses. Small-granule starch (SGS) is a category of unconventional starches with the granular size smaller than 10 μm. The potential use of SGS includes many conventional and novel high-value applications, such as texturizing, fat replacement, encapsulation, controlled delivery and nano-engineering. In the present work, we focused on three SGS isolated from amaranth (<i>Amaranth cruentus</i>), cow cockle (<i>Saponaria vaccaria</i>) and sweet corn (<i>sugary-1</i> maize mutant). The basic structural and unique physical properties of SGS were characterized and compared to common large-granule food starches. It was found that (1) the highly branched amylopectin contributed to low crystallinity and pasting viscosities of sweet corn starch, (2) cow cockle starch exhibited high shear-resistance and low retrogradation in prolonged storage, and (3) the amylopectin for amaranth starch was less branched with small clusters, which was associated with the high crystallinity, medium shear-resistance and low pasting viscosity of amaranth starch. Despite the small size of starch granules, SGS in both native and swelling states showed the capacity of retaining small molecules. Compared to large-granule starch, native SGS are more difficult for small molecules to reach an equilibrium permeation. This work provides insights to the fine structure and physicochemical behaviors of selected high-potent SGS, which is believed to support the industrial production and application of SGS in the future.</p> <p>The characteristics of local polymeric structure dominate many critical properties of glucan particles, such as starch retrogradation and the loading and stabilizing of active substance. Molecular rotor (MR), a fluorescent probe, was proposed to fulfill the simple, high-sensitive, and quantitative-based characterization of local glucan architecture (LGA). In the present work, two innovative studies relevant to this novel method were conducted: (1) MR was able to characterize glucans based on its unique fluorescent response to characteristic LGA, (2) MR was able to sensitively probe and visually demonstrate the transition of LGA induced by starch retrogradation. This novel MR-based approach is expected to advance carbohydrate-related researches in the future.</p>

The majority of water soluble vitamin and organic acid food additives are distributed in their crystalline forms. However, when they are combined with water and other food ingredients and then exposed to a variety of unit operations, there is potential to solidify these initially crystalline ingredients in the amorphous state. Amorphous solids are generally less chemically and physically stable than their crystalline counterparts. To ensure nutrient delivery to the consumer and fulfill labeling laws, deterioration of nutrients due to unintentional amorphization is undesirable. Additionally, the potential for recrystallization of an amorphous ingredient may alter texture and redistribute water. Hence, solid state form is a critical factor dictating the stability of food formulations. Building on earlier work from my M.S. degree that demonstrated thiamine chloride hydrochloride could solidify in the amorphous state in the presence of a variety of polymers (Arioglu-Tuncil et al., 2017), a major goal of this study was to develop a comprehensive understanding of the physical and chemical stability of amorphous forms of two thiamine salts, thiamine chloride hydrochloride (TClHCl) and thiamine mononitrate (TMN), in comparison to their crystalline counterparts and each other. The objectives for this part of the work were to investigate amorphization/recrystallization tendencies of TMN and TClHCl in solid dispersions, as well as chemical stability of thiamine in the solid dispersions to understand the impact of vitamin form, physical state (amorphous vs. crystalline), polymer type and features (Tg, hygroscopicity, and ability for intermolecular interactions), storage conditions, proportion of vitamin to polymer,and pre-lyophilized solution pHs on thiamine degradation and the physical stability of dispersions. Thiamine degraded more when in the amorphous form compared to in the crystalline state. Additionally, polymer type and vitamin proportion influenced thiamine degradation, where thiamine degraded more when it was present in lower concentrations (in dispersions that had higher Tgs), and it was chemically more stable when a polymer with greater intermolecular interactions with the vitamin was used. As storage RH increased, variably hygroscopicities of the polymers resulted in different thiamine degradation rates. The pre-lyophilization pHs of the solutions had a significant impact on thiamine stability in the solid dispersions. Similar to thiamine salts, citric acid is a commonly used food ingredient with a high crystallization tendency. Following similar experimental designs for documenting the recrystallization tendencies of citric acid in amorphous solid dispersions to those used in the thiamine studies, hydrogen bonding and/or ionic interactions between polymer and citric acid were found to be the main stabilizing factor for delaying recrystallization, more than polymer Tg and hygroscopicity. The findings of this dissertation provide a powerful prediction approach to physically and chemically stabilize the small compounds in the complex food matrices for the production of high quality food products and ensuring nutrient delivery to target populations.<br>

The current trend of increasing demand for minimally processed food requires more effective preservation technologies than are presently used. In this study, an investigation has been made into a novel strategy to control some common foodborne pathogens, and therefore, to provide an alternative means for enhancing the safety and extending the shelf lives of food products. Modified atmosphere is able to extend the shelf life of seafood and meat products. In this study, a simulated controlled atmosphere (CA) broth system was used to investigate the potential of a modified atmosphere rich in CO2 at a concentration of 40%, supplemented with N2, to control common foodborne pathogens, such as Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Controlled atmosphere significantly reduced the exponential growth rates of all tested pathogens, while the effects on other growth parameters (eg. lag phase duration and maximum population density) depended on the individual species and the specific growth conditions. The CA significantly extended the lag phase durations of S. aureus and V. parahaemolyticus at 20 degrees C at both pH 6.3 and 6.8, and that of L. monocytogenes at both 7 degrees C and 20 degrees C, and at both pH 6.3 and 6.8. The CA also significantly lowered the maximum population densities of S. aureus and V. parahaemolyticus at 20 degrees C, at pH 6.3 and 6.8, S. Typhimurium at pH 6.8, and L. monocytogenes at pH 6.3 and 7 degrees C. E. coli O157:H7 and S. Typhimurium were more resistant to the inhibitory effect of the CA, while S. aureus and V. parahaemolyticus were most sensitive. The inhibitory effect of CA was due mainly to the extensions of the lag phase duration and the reduction of the exponential growth rates of the test pathogens. This study confirms other studies that CA as a means for food preservation provides potential to control foodborne pathogens and therefore enhance the safety of a food product. The use of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in controlling spoilage microorganisms and pathogens in foods has been a popular research theme worldwide. In this study, the antimicrobial effects of 18 lactic acid bacteria strains were evaluated in vitro, with emphasis on the most effective strain, the newly characterised Lactobacillus reuteri DPC16. The results demonstrated antagonistic effects of many strains against L. monocytogenes, E. coli O157:H7, S. Typhimurium and S. aureus. L. reuteri DPC16 showed the strongest antimicrobial activity against the tested pathogens including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Co-cultivation of L. reuteri DPC16, and co-incubation of its spent culture supernatant (DPC16-SCS), with the pathogens have demonstrated that the antimicrobial effect is bactericidal and valid at pH 4 - 6.5 and at a temperature as low as 10 degrees C. Further characterisation of the antimicrobial effect of L. reuteri DPC16 showed it to be mainly due to the presence of reuterin (ß-hydroxypropionaldehyde), although lactic acid may have also played a role. These characteristics of L. reuteri DPC16 and its metabolite reuterin make it an unique and potent candidate as a biopreservative to control both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in foods. The combination of L. reuteri DPC16 and CA was assessed for its inhibitory effect on L. monocytogenes using DPC16-SCS and the fermentative supernatant of L. reuteri DPC16 from a glycerol-water solution (DPC16-GFS). The results showed that both of these supernatants, at 25 AU/mL, in combination with CA (60% CO2:40% N2) had a combined inhibitory effect on L. monocytogenes which could not be achieved by any one of the individual factors alone. Analysis of the levels of expression of some stress response genes of L. monocytogenes, after growth in the presence of L. reuteri DPC16 supernatant and/or CA, showed that the expression of some genes was affected including genes betL, gbuA and opuCA responsible for osmosis adaptation and genes gadA, gadB and gadC responsible for acid tolerance. Induction of gbuA, gadB and gadC by the culture supernatant suggests activation of osmotic and acid adaptation and that these genes play a major role in the culture supernatant-induced stresses. An investigation was also carried out to determine if the changes in gene expression conferred a cross-protection to heat. The result showed that the survival of L. monocytogenes grown in the presence of the culture supernatant and CA was significantly increased after exposure to heat treatment at 56oC, suggesting that a cross-protection to thermal stress had been induced. Based on these findings it is proposed that a comprehensive novel strategy incorporating both L. reuteri DPC16 or its fermentative products and a modified atmosphere rich in CO2 could be developed to potentially control foodborne pathogens in food products.

The production of olive oil has seen an increase in recent years due to a broader understanding of the health benefits of the Mediterranean Aliment Culture. With this expanding industry we also see an increase in the waste products associated with olive oil production. Given the high polluting content of the waste streams and the economic costs associated with its removal and processing, waste remediation and disposal has become a significant point of interest for both producers and local bodies. In this project, wastes of the olive oil production industry are examined for their use as the raw material for a novel product used in the control of horticulturally important diseases, examining the effect of extraction protocols on the activity of the final product. Active fractions of the olive oil wastes were identified from literature and protocols for their extraction and recovery developed; incorporating both standard solvent extraction and novel ultrasound-assisted extraction. Criteria for the analysis of extract quality were outlined and potential target applications identified. The biophenolic compounds of olive wastes were identified as providing the majority of the active fraction, so protocols were developed for the recovery of these compounds. Standard solvent extraction and ultrasound-assisted extraction were examined for their effectiveness of biophenolic recovery and their effect on product quality. Certain horticulturally important diseases were identified as potential targets, and bioassays undertaken to determine the ability of a crude extract to inhibit and control these diseases. It was found that the action of ultrasound during extraction provides a greater degree of recovery of biophenolic compounds, with minimal loss of product quality; as determined by bioassays and total biophenol determination. This increase in recovery is due primarily to the destruction of cellular material resulting in higher rates and absolute yields of recovery. This work provides evidence of the occurrence of some interesting phenomenon in the recovery of biophenols from olive wastes that deserves further examination. The crude olive leaf extract was shown to have an inhibitory effect on bacteria and effectively no inhibitory effect on fungal species in the total biophenol ranges tested. Erwinia amylovora and Staphylococcus aureus both showed a large susceptibility to the olive leaf extract. Results showed a higher degree of susceptibility of Gram positive bacteria and a potential resistance in soil microbes. For bacterial species, total biophenol concentrations of 0.15 to 3.50 mg GAE/ml provided inhibitory effects, while with the fungal species tested, no inhibitory effects were found at total biophenol concentrations of up to 2.50 mg GAE/ml. Some evidence exists that there is an opportunity for the economic recovery of olive biophenols for use as a novel product, but more work is required to determine specific applications and/or targets of use, as well as optimisation of the extraction and purification protocol. A sample removed from interfering compounds will allow the examination of activity of particular compounds and hence a better understanding of the action of the olive waste extract.

Richmond Ltd. has recently undergone a change in strategy, away from the traditional commodity based meat industry, towards the modern food business. To do this, opportunities to add value to their current product range must be identified. This involves the conversion of traditionally low value commodity based products into products that demand a premium. An example of this is converting muscles that are currently used for grinding meat into a further processed convenience food (i.e. ready meals). Another method is to add further value to premium products by making them more appealing to consumers (i.e. nutritional information on labels). This work details investigations into the functional properties of selected beef forequarter muscles (low value commodity products) and the nutritional properties of selected export lamb products (premium products). The functional properties of a number of beef forequarter muscles were measured to identify which had the best potential for further processing applications with respect to ready meals. The functional properties of tenderness, cook loss and shrinkage were measured for the Latissimus Dorsi, Pectorialis Profundus (Point End Brisket), Infraspinatus (Cross Cut Blade), Triceps Brachi Longhead (Main muscle in Bolar Shoulder Clod), Supraspinatus (Chuck Tender), Serratus Ventralis and Triceps Brachi Medialhead (Muscle in Bolar Shoulder Clod. From the tests conducted the Infraspinatus and the Triceps Brachi Longhead have been identified as having the best functional properties with respect to further processing for ready meal applications. As well as conducting tests to identify the forequarter muscles with the best potential for further processing applications, investigations were carried out to identify cooking regimes that would optimise the functional properties. This work confirmed that there are three major chemical reactions, which determine the resultant functional properties of cooked meat. They are the denaturation and aggregation of the myofibrillar proteins and the denaturation and solubilisation of connective tissue (collagen). At around 50°C myosin (45% to 50% of the myofibrillar proteins) denatures, which results in a substantial increase in cook loss and reduction in water holding capacity. At around 60°C collagen (main connective tissue protein) denatures, which results in a substantial increase in tenderness and increase in cook loss. This is because as the collagen denatures it loses it mechanical strength (increase in tenderness) and can no longer support its own structure, and causes it to contract. This contraction causes fluid within the meat and cook loss caused by the denaturation of myosin to be expelled from the meat by compressive forces (squeezed out). At around 70°C actomyosin (22% of the myofibrillar proteins) denatures. This results in a substantial increase in the cook loss and firming of the meat. The increase in cook loss or decrease in water holding capacity that occurs with myofibrillar protein denaturation is due to the fact that when these proteins denature and aggregate their ability to bind water is greatly reduced. From the results of the cooking regime trials it is recommended that for functional property considerations that during the cooking of further processed meat products (i.e. ready meal applications) a meat temperature of 62°C should be aimed for, for the slowest heating region during cooking (usually the centre). This is because it has been identified that a cooking temperature of 65°C should not be exceeded otherwise detrimental effects can occur to the functional properties of the cooked meat. For health concerns a 7D bacterial death reduction has to be achieved. This means that for a cooking temperature of 62°C the meat has to be held at this temperature for at least 5 minutes. Therefore the total cooking time would be the time needed to heat all the meat to 62°C plus 5 minutes to ensure a safe product. The heating or cooking system employed should also ensure that a minimal amount of the meat is heated above 65°C. This can be easily achieved by minimising the external cooking temperature, but long cooking times will result. An industrial cooking process will be a compromise between the cost associated with longer residence time and product functionality. As mentioned earlier another way to add value is to supply nutritional information for selected cuts. Consequentially one of the objectives of this project was to provide some nutritional information for selected meat cuts. Though the primary objective of this part of the project was to develop a method for producing the needed information, so that Richmond N.Z. Ltd. can develop further information on an as needs basis. The nutritional characteristics of a number of export lamb cuts from the saddle region has also been investigated and a method devised to allow further characterisation of other cuts. The method involves breaking down a standard cut into its constituent components (e.g. Frenched rack consists of loin eye, fat cap, intercostals and fatty tissue). The constituent components are tested for their nutritional properties. The frenched rack nutritional properties are calculated from the nutritional properties of the constituents components and the yield data (percentage of each constituent component within a frenched rack) for frenched racks. This method allowed the identification of the main sources of variation for nutritional characteristics. These differences were found to be caused by the lean to fat ratio, not nutritional differences in lean tissue from the same region of lamb (i.e. loin eye and tenderloin very similar nutritionally). The difference in lean to fat ration also accounts for the variation between grades (i.e. PX grade lamb cuts have a higher fat content than YX grade lamb cuts due to PX grade cuts having a higher percentage fat tissue in their cuts). The cuts characterised were the shortloin section (whole section or chop), rack section (whole section or chop), 75mm racks frenched 25mm, boneless loin and tenderloin for both PX and YX grade lamb. The method will be applicable to other regions of lamb (i.e. hindquarter and forequarter) for which nutritional information already exists, but for which yielding data will have to be collected. The method would also be applicable to other species such as beef and venison, but both nutritional data for constituent components and yielding data would have to be collected.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of preheat treatments on fouling by fresh whole milk (FWM), recombined whole milk (RCB) and reconstituted whole milk (Recon) in the high-temperature heater of indirect UHT plants. Various preheat treatments prior to evaporation during milk powder manufacture were applied to skim milk powder (SMP, 75 °C 2 s, 85 °C, 155 s and 95 °C, 155 s) and whole milk powder (WMP, 95 °C, 33 s). These preheat treatments were so-called “evaporator preheat treatments”. Skim milk powder (SMP) and whole milk powder (WMP) were derived from the same original batch of pasteurised FWM to remove the effects of the variation in milk composition between different milk batches. These SMPs were recombined with anhydrous milk fat and water to prepare RCB, and WMPs were reconstituted with water to prepare Recon. Then, (homogenized) FWM, RCB and Recon were subjected to various preheat treatments (75 °C, 11 s, 85 °C, 147 s and 95 °C, 147 s) prior to UHT processing. These preheat treatments were so-called “UHT preheat treatments”. Temperature difference (hot water inlet temperature – milk outlet temperature) was taken as a measure of the extent of fouling in the high-temperature heater. The slope of the linear regression of temperature difference versus time (for two hours of UHT processing) was taken as fouling rate (°C/h). Increasing both evaporator and UHT preheat treatments resulted in increasing fouling rate and total deposit weight for all three whole milk types for several milk batches. In the case of FWM, there was no reduction in fouling rate with increasing UHT preheat treatment whether FWM was homogenized then preheated, preheated then homogenized or not homogenized at all. These findings, which are wholly consistent and well replicated, are in apparent conflict with the results of most previous comparable studies. Possible reasons for this are explained. Further investigations of the effects of homogenization relating to the role of whey protein on the surface of the fat globules showed that whey protein associated with the membrane covering the surface of fat globules for homogenized then preheated FWM, RCB and Recon and that association increased with increasing heating process stage. The increasing association of whey protein with the milk fat globules membrane with increasing severity of heating process stage became faster when preheat treatment was more severe: the association of whey protein plateaued on intermediate temperature heating when the milks were preheated at 75°C, 11 s and on preheating when the milks were preheated at 95°C, 147 s. In the case of FWM, the thickness of the membrane covering the surface of fat globules for homogenized then preheated FWM, which increased with the severity of heating process stage, was greater than the thickness of the membrane in preheated then homogenized FWM. Preheating then homogenization resulted in the greater interfacial spreading of small molecules on the surface of fat globules, i.e. whey protein or small molecules from the disintegration of casein micelles during preheating. Possible basic mechanisms for UHT fouling in the high-temperature heater include: the reduction in the solubility of calcium phosphate and the deposition of protein as fat-bound protein and non-fat-bound protein. When non-fat-bound protein in milk plasma deposited, it could be a carrier for the deposition of mineral, such as, the precipitate of calcium phosphate in the casein micelles or the deposition of complexes between whey protein and casein micelles.

Tenderness, juiciness, colour and flavour are the most important meat quality attributes affecting the consumer acceptance. Maintaining the consistency of meat products by avoiding variable quality has become a major concern and great challenge to the meat industry. This in turn will also benefit meat end-users in the marketplace by having more tender meat. The present study was designed to evaluate the overall effects of pre-rigor infusion with kiwifruit juice, which contains the plant protease, actinidin, on lamb quality. A total of 18 lambs (12 months old) were divided into three treatment groups (6 lambs per each treatment). After exsanguination, lamb carcasses were infused (10% body weight) with fresh kiwifruit juice (Ac), water (W) and compared with a noninfusion treatment which acted as a control (C). Samples from different muscle/cuts (longissimus dorsi (LD) vs leg chops) at different post-mortem times (1 day post-mortem vs. 3 wks vacuum packaged storage at 2°C) and display time (0 to 6 days after the post-mortem storage) were analysed to monitor the changes on meat physical properties (e.g., tenderness, temperature, drip and cooking loss, colour), biochemical changes (pH, proteins and lipids) and volatile flavour compounds after the infusion treatments. The most tender meat (lowest shear force values) (P < 0.001) detected in the Ac carcasses post-mortem compared with C and W carcasses demonstrated that kiwifruit juice was a very powerful meat tenderizer, and could contribute to the meat tenderization process efficiently and effectively. Compared with C and W carcasses, the enhanced proteolytic activity (P = 0.002) resulting from the actinidin in kiwifruit juice in Ac carcasses caused degradation of the myofibrillar proteins and the appearance of new peptides during postmortem ageing. A slight positive effect in a*-value (redness) and decreased lipid oxidation, found in leg chops, was thought to be caused by the natural antioxidants in kiwifruit juice. Kiwifruit juice infused into the meat did not alter (P > 0.05) the volatile flavour compound profile indicating that the meat from Ac treated carcasses maintained its natural lamb flavour. No treatment differences were found for the temperature decline (P > 0.05) between the infused treatments and C. The higher rate of pH decline (P < 0.05) found in W carcasses might have contributed to the higher drip and cooking loss. The unbound water in meat might contribute to the higher L*-values (lightness) found in W carcasses. In summary, the proteolytic tenderizing infusion treatment using kiwifruit juice is a feasible approach for the commercial meat industry to increase profits, and also could satisfy the eating quality standards required by the consumers. In addition, tenderizing meat by using kiwifruit juice could also provide the kiwifruit processors an additional option for use of their product to gain a more profitable return.

The growth of thermophiles during the manufacture of milk powder leads to a progressive increase in the number of thermophilic bacteria contaminating the final product. The limited residence time of the milk in the plant during milk powder manufacture and the concentration effect of converting milk into milk powder cannot explain the number of thermophiles found in the final product. This suggests that thermophiles are attaching to the large surface area of stainless steel found within a milk powder plant and then growing and developing into biofilms, with individual cells and/or biofilm fragments sloughing off into the product line and thus contaminating the final product. The aim of the present study was to investigate the attachment mechanisms that enable the thermophile Anoxybacillus flavithermus (B 1 2) to attach to stainless steel surfaces. Passing a B 1 2 culture through a column of stainless steel chips, collecting the first cells to pass through, re-culturing and repeating the process six times, resulted in the isolation of a mutant, labelled X7, with lO-fold reduced ability to attach to stainless steel as well as a reduced ability to attach to plastic and glass. A comparison of bacterial cell surface properties indicated that X7 was less hydrophobic than its parental strain B 1 2 . Cell surface charge measurements also suggest that X7 has less net negative surface charge. Disruption of extracellular polysaccharides and DNA appeared to have no effect on the attachment process. Removal of surface proteins caused a reduction in attachment of B 1 2 and X7 as well as a reduction in surface hydrophobicity suggesting surface protein involvement in both. Analysis by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of lysozyme/mutanolysin extracted surface proteins revealed two proteins expressed at reduced levels in X 7 compared with B 1 2 . One protein was identified by mass spectrometry as the cytoplasmic enzyme Formate acetyltransferase. The role of Formate acetyltransferase and the second unidentified protein on the attachment process of Anoxybacillus flavithermus remains unclear.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of preheat treatments on fouling by fresh whole milk (FWM), recombined whole milk (RCB) and reconstituted whole milk (Recon) in the high-temperature heater of indirect UHT plants. Various preheat treatments prior to evaporation during milk powder manufacture were applied to skim milk powder (SMP, 75 °C 2 s, 85 °C, 155 s and 95 °C, 155 s) and whole milk powder (WMP, 95 °C, 33 s). These preheat treatments were so-called “evaporator preheat treatments”. Skim milk powder (SMP) and whole milk powder (WMP) were derived from the same original batch of pasteurised FWM to remove the effects of the variation in milk composition between different milk batches. These SMPs were recombined with anhydrous milk fat and water to prepare RCB, and WMPs were reconstituted with water to prepare Recon. Then, (homogenized) FWM, RCB and Recon were subjected to various preheat treatments (75 °C, 11 s, 85 °C, 147 s and 95 °C, 147 s) prior to UHT processing. These preheat treatments were so-called “UHT preheat treatments”. Temperature difference (hot water inlet temperature – milk outlet temperature) was taken as a measure of the extent of fouling in the high-temperature heater. The slope of the linear regression of temperature difference versus time (for two hours of UHT processing) was taken as fouling rate (°C/h). Increasing both evaporator and UHT preheat treatments resulted in increasing fouling rate and total deposit weight for all three whole milk types for several milk batches. In the case of FWM, there was no reduction in fouling rate with increasing UHT preheat treatment whether FWM was homogenized then preheated, preheated then homogenized or not homogenized at all. These findings, which are wholly consistent and well replicated, are in apparent conflict with the results of most previous comparable studies. Possible reasons for this are explained. Further investigations of the effects of homogenization relating to the role of whey protein on the surface of the fat globules showed that whey protein associated with the membrane covering the surface of fat globules for homogenized then preheated FWM, RCB and Recon and that association increased with increasing heating process stage. The increasing association of whey protein with the milk fat globules membrane with increasing severity of heating process stage became faster when preheat treatment was more severe: the association of whey protein plateaued on intermediate temperature heating when the milks were preheated at 75°C, 11 s and on preheating when the milks were preheated at 95°C, 147 s. In the case of FWM, the thickness of the membrane covering the surface of fat globules for homogenized then preheated FWM, which increased with the severity of heating process stage, was greater than the thickness of the membrane in preheated then homogenized FWM. Preheating then homogenization resulted in the greater interfacial spreading of small molecules on the surface of fat globules, i.e. whey protein or small molecules from the disintegration of casein micelles during preheating. Possible basic mechanisms for UHT fouling in the high-temperature heater include: the reduction in the solubility of calcium phosphate and the deposition of protein as fat-bound protein and non-fat-bound protein. When non-fat-bound protein in milk plasma deposited, it could be a carrier for the deposition of mineral, such as, the precipitate of calcium phosphate in the casein micelles or the deposition of complexes between whey protein and casein micelles.

Richmond Ltd. has recently undergone a change in strategy, away from the traditional commodity based meat industry, towards the modern food business. To do this, opportunities to add value to their current product range must be identified. This involves the conversion of traditionally low value commodity based products into products that demand a premium. An example of this is converting muscles that are currently used for grinding meat into a further processed convenience food (i.e. ready meals). Another method is to add further value to premium products by making them more appealing to consumers (i.e. nutritional information on labels). This work details investigations into the functional properties of selected beef forequarter muscles (low value commodity products) and the nutritional properties of selected export lamb products (premium products). The functional properties of a number of beef forequarter muscles were measured to identify which had the best potential for further processing applications with respect to ready meals. The functional properties of tenderness, cook loss and shrinkage were measured for the Latissimus Dorsi, Pectorialis Profundus (Point End Brisket), Infraspinatus (Cross Cut Blade), Triceps Brachi Longhead (Main muscle in Bolar Shoulder Clod), Supraspinatus (Chuck Tender), Serratus Ventralis and Triceps Brachi Medialhead (Muscle in Bolar Shoulder Clod. From the tests conducted the Infraspinatus and the Triceps Brachi Longhead have been identified as having the best functional properties with respect to further processing for ready meal applications. As well as conducting tests to identify the forequarter muscles with the best potential for further processing applications, investigations were carried out to identify cooking regimes that would optimise the functional properties. This work confirmed that there are three major chemical reactions, which determine the resultant functional properties of cooked meat. They are the denaturation and aggregation of the myofibrillar proteins and the denaturation and solubilisation of connective tissue (collagen). At around 50°C myosin (45% to 50% of the myofibrillar proteins) denatures, which results in a substantial increase in cook loss and reduction in water holding capacity. At around 60°C collagen (main connective tissue protein) denatures, which results in a substantial increase in tenderness and increase in cook loss. This is because as the collagen denatures it loses it mechanical strength (increase in tenderness) and can no longer support its own structure, and causes it to contract. This contraction causes fluid within the meat and cook loss caused by the denaturation of myosin to be expelled from the meat by compressive forces (squeezed out). At around 70°C actomyosin (22% of the myofibrillar proteins) denatures. This results in a substantial increase in the cook loss and firming of the meat. The increase in cook loss or decrease in water holding capacity that occurs with myofibrillar protein denaturation is due to the fact that when these proteins denature and aggregate their ability to bind water is greatly reduced. From the results of the cooking regime trials it is recommended that for functional property considerations that during the cooking of further processed meat products (i.e. ready meal applications) a meat temperature of 62°C should be aimed for, for the slowest heating region during cooking (usually the centre). This is because it has been identified that a cooking temperature of 65°C should not be exceeded otherwise detrimental effects can occur to the functional properties of the cooked meat. For health concerns a 7D bacterial death reduction has to be achieved. This means that for a cooking temperature of 62°C the meat has to be held at this temperature for at least 5 minutes. Therefore the total cooking time would be the time needed to heat all the meat to 62°C plus 5 minutes to ensure a safe product. The heating or cooking system employed should also ensure that a minimal amount of the meat is heated above 65°C. This can be easily achieved by minimising the external cooking temperature, but long cooking times will result. An industrial cooking process will be a compromise between the cost associated with longer residence time and product functionality. As mentioned earlier another way to add value is to supply nutritional information for selected cuts. Consequentially one of the objectives of this project was to provide some nutritional information for selected meat cuts. Though the primary objective of this part of the project was to develop a method for producing the needed information, so that Richmond N.Z. Ltd. can develop further information on an as needs basis. The nutritional characteristics of a number of export lamb cuts from the saddle region has also been investigated and a method devised to allow further characterisation of other cuts. The method involves breaking down a standard cut into its constituent components (e.g. Frenched rack consists of loin eye, fat cap, intercostals and fatty tissue). The constituent components are tested for their nutritional properties. The frenched rack nutritional properties are calculated from the nutritional properties of the constituents components and the yield data (percentage of each constituent component within a frenched rack) for frenched racks. This method allowed the identification of the main sources of variation for nutritional characteristics. These differences were found to be caused by the lean to fat ratio, not nutritional differences in lean tissue from the same region of lamb (i.e. loin eye and tenderloin very similar nutritionally). The difference in lean to fat ration also accounts for the variation between grades (i.e. PX grade lamb cuts have a higher fat content than YX grade lamb cuts due to PX grade cuts having a higher percentage fat tissue in their cuts). The cuts characterised were the shortloin section (whole section or chop), rack section (whole section or chop), 75mm racks frenched 25mm, boneless loin and tenderloin for both PX and YX grade lamb. The method will be applicable to other regions of lamb (i.e. hindquarter and forequarter) for which nutritional information already exists, but for which yielding data will have to be collected. The method would also be applicable to other species such as beef and venison, but both nutritional data for constituent components and yielding data would have to be collected.