Diseases which in the sixteenth century were found to be related to a deficiency of some substance in the natural foods consumed in the diet were later known as deficiency diseases. As early as 1881, Lunin found that rats could not live on a purified diet of carbohydrate, fat, protein and minerals, but could exist on a diet supplemented with certain natural foods. These findings were found to be in agreement with records of early descriptions of deficiency diseases. Scurvy was recognized very early in voyages made across oceans where ships had no means of being re-provisioned. Progress was very slow in determining the cause of this dread sickness. In 1535, Jacques Cartier's seamen had an epidemic of scurvy. The Indians of the surrounding country gave him a drink made of evergreen leaves and bark. The rapid recovery of the seamen was considered miraculous. It has been stated (Beeuwkes 1948) that scurvy did not occur until the advent of sailing ships and subsequent long voyages. Prevalence of scurvy was found in direct proportion to the length of time the vessel was on the ocean. When it was recognized that lack of fresh fruits and vegetables caused the disease, various countries made regulations requiring the sailing vessels to carry a supply of them. Holst and Frolick confirmed experimentally the dietary origin of the disease in 1907 (Hawk, et al. 1949). Ascorbic acid was not isolated until 1932 when King and Waugh announced the isolation of hexuronic acid from lemons (Wohl 1945) which were active in preventing or curing scurvy. The name "ascorbic acid" was given by Szent-Gyorgyi and Hayworth. Since the time of its isolation, ascorbic acid has been studied a great deal. In recent years it has been found to be related to resistance to disease. The requirement has been reported to be higher in Hodgkin's disease, protracted fevers, active rheumatic heart disease, and tuberculosis. The purpose of this study was to find what relationship may exist between serum ascorbic acid and blood glucose to the rheumatic fever state in Utah and to the incidence of dental caries in three areas of Idaho, each of which has a different fluoride content of water. A nutritional status study was made on information collected as part of the Western Regional Research Project on the Nutritional Status of Population Groups. It's purpose was to determine the relationships between diet and physical well-being and dental health of normal children and also those having rheumatic fever in the Ogden, Utah, area. The second part of the study included normal children in three areas of Idaho, each of which has a different fluoride content of the water supply. The following tests were made on the blood and urine samples of the five groups of children and the parents of some of the children who had rheumatic fever: urine analyses for albumin and sugar; blood analyses for hemoglobin, hematocrit, white and red cell count, sedimentation rate, blood smears and glucose, and serum analyses for ascorbic acid, riboflavin, cholesterol, vitamin A, carotene, alkaline phosphatase, iron and copper. Also obtained on these groups were seven-day diet records, dietary history, medical history and examination, dental examination, and dental and bone X-rays. This study included only the ascorbic acid and blood glucose values. Correlations between these findings and the diet records and/or other constituents of the blood will be presented in later papers.

Through the ages, people have been confronted with the problem of storing food after the harvest season for consumption during the winter months. Foods have been preserved by dehydration, canning, and refrigeration. However, people usually prefer fresh vegetables become unfit for human consumption as a result of sprouting and breakdown in storage. Some chemicals have been used with various degrees of success in preventing sprouting of certain vegetables. The chemicals were applied as a pre-harvest foliar spray or directly on the tubers or on the roots. In 1954, a law was passed by the United States Congress authorizing the release of small amounts of radioactive materials to study the peaceful uses of atomic energy. Since that time, many institutions have been awarded grants and contracts to work on various phases of food preservation by atomic energy. Through this program, the investigators at the Utah State University have been studying certain methods of extending the "shelf life" of fresh vegetables and fruits by gamma-rays. The investigations presented in this thesis are of preliminary and general nature. They were mainly concerned with effects of the dose and the rate of gamma radiation on sprout inhibition, chemical, histological, and sensory quality changes in carrots and potatoes when stored at different temperatures. In addition, studies were conducted to combine the thermal and the radiation treatments with the assumption that the "threshold" radiation dose may be lowered. The application of the work presented herein constitutes a new approach to the problems of vegetable preservation. The success of this new field will depend upon improved methods and techniques in handling the material and the economics of the gamma-ray source.

More of the manufacturing milk purchased from Utah's dairy farms is used for the production of cheese than for any other product. Approximately eleven and one-half million pounds of cheese were produced in Utah in 1959, of which more than half was cheddar. Many problems are encountered in the production of A-grade cheddar cheese. One of the most important causes of the reduction in grade is the late gas defect which accounts for about 50 percent of the cheese grading below A-grade. To increase the percentage of A-grade cheddar cheese in Utah, the late gas problem should be solved. The objective of this study is to learn some of the causes of the late gas defect and point the way to its prevention.

PART I The precursors for the biosynthesis of raffinose in sugarbeets were studied. An enzyme preparation was obtained from the sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris) root. Incubation of this enzyme with (X-galactose-1-phosphate, Uridine triphosphate (UTP), Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), Magnesium chloride (MgC12), and L- cysteine at pH 5, 10°c for 6 hours formed a compound which was identified as raffinose by a hydrolysis method and thin- layer chromatography. The same result was obtained when Uridinediphosphate (UDP)-galactose was incubated with sucrose, ATP , MgC12 , and L- cysteine in the presence of the beet enzyme preparation. These reactions suggested that the sugarbeet contained an enzyme system capable of transferring a galactose unit from X-galactose-1-phosphate or UDP-galactose to sucrose, forming raffinose. The galactosylation of sucrose via UDP- galactose was further confirmed using sucrose-UL-C14 as one of the substrates. Radioactive raffinose was identified on a radio-autograph. The involvement of UDP-galactose in the raffinose synthesis is believed to be of more significance in vivo. A preliminary study indicated there are at least five main categories of nucleotide compounds in beet root tissues. It is suggested that a sugar nucleotide pool is present in the sugarbeet for transglycosylation among various sugars. A reaction similar to the above using UDP-glucose-UL-c14 and Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide instead of UDP-galactose resulted in the formation of labeled raffinose. This suggested that an UDP-glucose-4-epimerase activity in beet tissues may be responsible for the conversion of UDP-glucose to UDP-galactose for the raffinose synthesis. The possible participation of galactinol in the raffinose synthesis in sugarbeets was investigated. An experiment using galactinol, sucrose-UL-c14 and ATP as reactants with the sugarbeet enzyme did not give positive results. The presence of X-galactosidase activity in the beet enzyme preparation was noted. Incubation of the enzyme at 37 C with raffinose and stachyose respectively liberated galactose as a common product. It is suggested that X-galactosidase is the enzyme responsible for the breakdown of raffinose in the sugarbeet. The turn-over of galactose liberated from raffinose by this hydrolytic enzyme is discussed. The separation of X-galactosidase from raffinose synthetase was attempted. Some difficulties involved are discussed. A study of the effects of pH and temperature on the enzyme activities showed that pH 5 and low temperatures (0-15°C) are favorable for the raffinose synthesis, while high temperatures (above 15°C) favored X-galactosidase activity. Raffinose was formed when UDP-galactose and sucrose were incubated with the enzyme preparation at 0C for 24 hours. This would account for the accumulation of raffinose during cold storage since at low temperatures X-galactosidase activity is retarded while raffinose synthetase seems to be unaffected. PART II Incubation of 30 milligrams commercial sweet almond emulsin (800 units/mg) with 2.5 BX molasses which contained 1. 5 mg raffinose in 3 milliliters 0.1 M acetate buffer at pH 6, 35C for one day resulted in a complete hydrolysis of raffinose in the digest. No sucrose inversion occurred under the above conditions.

The salt content of cheese is usually determined by the American Dairy Science Association (ADSA) (26) procedure. This method is based upon the determination of chloride in the sample, and results are expressed as per cent sodium chloride. The presence of chlorides in cheese other than sodium chloride would introduce error in the results. However, in practice this is not serious except where relatively large amounts of CaCl2 are added to the cheese milk. In determining the NaCl in cheese, one would be as justiied in basing his results on sodium analysis as on chloride analysis. An exception would be processed cheese where sodium phosphates and sodium citrate are added to the cheese where sodium phosphates and sodium citrate are added to the cheese during processing. In the past, chloride analysis has been easier and simpler to perform than sodium analysis, and thus has been the procedure of choice for salt determinations in most food products. The recent development of sodium ion electrodes may now open new possibilities for the determination of NaCl in cheese and other foods. Sodium ion electrodes can be used with expanded-scale pH meters and are very convenient for the determination of sodium in biological and other substances (13, 23). The purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of using a potentiometer with a sodium ion electrode for the determination of NaCl in cheese.

During recent years, the dairy industry has been aware of a defect in Cheddar cheese known as "late gas". This causes the mechanical openings to enlarge and become shiny. In Cottage cheese the defect exhibits itself in the form of floating curd. Both of these defects result in a general lowering of the grade and quality of the finished product.

During the past decade, many changes have taken place in the dairy industry. At the present time, the industry is endeavoring to improve the quality and handling of milk. This is being accomplished by new equipment and improved methods. In recent years the handling and transporting of milk by means of the ten gallon can is being replaced by the bulk tank system. With improved farm and truck tanks, milk can be cooled rapidly and stored at a lower temperature. There are a few problems pertaining to quality, fat tests and wights in handling milk in bulk tanks. Among the problems we may list the following; maintenance and improvement in the quality with reference to bacterial content and flavor, accurate composite fat tests and economy of investment and operation. The dairy industry along with other industries are striving to improve the equipment and methods of handling milk. With each improvement, there are many problems that must be overcome before the system can be considered successful. The tank system calls for every other day pick-up. The milk is pumped from the farm tank into the tank truck before being transported to the dairy plant. With this new development came the problem of gathering the samples of milk for the fat test at the farm rather than at the factory. This study compares the daily fat test with the 15 day composite of farm tank milk. If milk is cooled and allowed to stand for any period of time a cream layer will form on the top of the milk. To mix the milk thoroughly for the cooling and sampling, installation of a mechanical agitator was necessary. The milk is held on the farm two days before delivery. This may cause a problem in increased bacterial counts. With the use of the bulk tank trucks came the problem of proper cleaning and sanitizing. Only a small amount of research has been made on cleaning and sanitizing tanks. Along with this problem came the one of undesirable flavors in milk. The question of the effect of increased holding and agitation on the development of undesirable flavors becomes important. Without proper control a large tank of milk could very easily be contaminated with the milk from one patron. As these problems, among others, are successfully solved, the bulk tank system of handling milk will flourish throughout the dairy industry.

The fruit production industry is of significant economic importance in the state of Utah. The annual receipts by the producers of fruit is usually between $3,000,000 and $5,000,000 according to Utah Agricultural Statistics (1963). With the farmer receiving only about 38 percent of the consumer's dollar this amounts to approximately $9,000,000 to $15,000,000 total contribution by the fruit industry. The recent trend, however, is a slight reduction in acreage, number of farms, and total production of fruit. One of the major problems of the fruit industry and all agriculture in the state is the small size of the farms. In our present day of high specialization and modern technology it is not economically possible for the small farms to compete with the large units of other areas, particularly the west coast. Closely allied with this problem is the high value of real estate in the areas climatically suited for the growing of fruit. This latter problem is a result of the competition between fruit producers and home owners for the bench lands near the large towns and cities in the state. This has forced the fruit growers to seek new and lower priced areas for plantings. There has been some success in relocating orchards under new irrigation projects remote from the urban areas where the lower value of land will permit an economical operation. There is room for further expansion, but the size of the farms will need to be increased to provide economical units that can compete favorably with other large production areas. Utah residents presently consume more fruit than is grown in the state. This is because during the season of production there is a surplus of most of the fruits and a considerable quantity is shipped from the state in the form of fresh fruit. Utah processes a much smaller percentage of its fruit than the national average according to Taylor (1964). The population of Utah and the neighboring states is rapidly increasing as is the population of the entire country. At the same time the production of fruit is not increasing as is the population of the entire country. At the same time the production of fruit is not increasing at a corresponding rate. The weather in Utah provides another problem to the fruit industry. Although the weather every place in the United States has a strong bearing on the industry, the effect of the weather is more prevalent in Utah than most areas because of the frequent late spring frosts and the occasional extreme winters. In years when the weather is favorable for high yields a marketing problem exists. The above average crops fail to bring extra revenue because of the lack of markets and often the total revenue is less for the high yields than for the mediocre yields because the excessive supply forces the unit price received by the producer to a point where the gross receipts are less than for the average crop. These are some of the major problems the fruit industry of Utah faces today. Many have foreseen the solution of the problem to be the expansion of the fruit processing industry in the state. Carpenter (1949) and Nielson (1964) feel that this should be done by small cooperative canneries. Schermerhorn and Korzan (1962) feel that in order to survive the competition a large name brand company would be required. It is unquestioned that a processing industry would be of benefit to the fruit industry in Utah. A processing industry would stabilize prices to a great extent. It would allow the state to be more self-sustaining and provide for possible expansion of the fruit industry. Processing companies have highly skilled research organizations to assist growers in imporoving production. These are many of the things a processing industry has done in other areas and can do in Utah. However, many changes would be required in Utah production to adapt to a processing industry. Some of these changes are: (1) Processors must be insured of a uniform source of supply each year and have fruit available to them not only when the fresh market is oversupplied. (2) The volume of fruit must be large enough to allow for efficiency of the processing plant. (3) Some orchards need to be planted specifically for processing. (4) Quality control must be maintained from the producer right through the processor - the processed product can be no better than the raw material that goes into it. (5) Research must be conducted to determine the best processing varieties, harvest maturities, and ripening procedures. (6) In addition to adequate volume, a sufficient number of commoditites must be grown for processing to add diversification and extend the processing season over a reasonable period of time. This report concerns the effects of variety, maturity, and storage on the quality and nutritive value of certain fruits processed by freezing and canning with a view to the possibilities of expanding the fruit processing industry in Utah. Several varieties of apricots, cherries, peaches, pears, plums and strawberries were studied. Quality factors studied include: flavor, texture, appearance, and drained weight. Factors considered under nutritive value are: sugars, acidity, and ascorbic acid.

Since there is a high incidence of coronary heart disease in humans of middle-age and older in the United States, and the mortality of this disease is still increasing, a great deal of research has been done in this field. Although many theories have been formulated concerning the cause of atherosclerosis, it is a very complex disease, and appears to be influenced by many factors. Disturbed lipid metabolism is widely believed to be involved in the development of the vascular lesions found in arteriosclerosis, although the nature and origin of the disturbance is unknown. The mechanism for the elevation of serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels is not known; but sex hormones and dietary constituents are believed to be among the factors involved. The concept that atherosclerosis is a metabolic disorder involving lipids and lipoproteins has stimulated extensive investigation of the endocrine influences on circulating lipids and on lipid metabolism. The results have consistently indicated that estrogens decrease circulating cholesterol and prevent cholesterol induced coronary atherosclerosis, while androgen administration tends to increase circulating cholesterol. There are relative few studies of the effect of other sex hormones, such as progesterone. There is only limited information on the relationship between the level of progesterone and the concentration of serum cholesterol in healthy adults while living under ordinary living conditions. Further work with more subjects is desirable. Since the discovery by Marrian and co-workers (1929) of5β – Pregnane – 3∝,20∝ - diol in urine of pregnant women and the perfection of quantitative method for its determination by Venning (1937), this compound has received wide attention because of its close relation to the metabolism of the corpus luteum hormone, progesterone. Pregnandiol is the major end product of progesterone catabolism and its estimation provides a useful index of luteal function. Progesterone has been isolated from three mammalian tissue sources, the corpus luteum, the adrenal, and the placenta. The function of progesterone is to promote the proliferation of uterine mucosa and thus to prepare this tissue to receive the fertilized ovum. Cholesterol, literally meaning bile solid-alcohol, derives its name from the fact that it was first isolated from human gallstones, of which it is generally the chief component. The amount of cholesterol in animal tissues varies widely. It is particularly abundant in brain and nerve tissue, adrenal glands, and egg yolk. It had been shown that the administration of deuterium-labeled cholesterol to a pregnant women gave rise to labeled pregnanediol in the urine. Presumably, the administered cholesterol was converted in the placenta to progesterone, from which pregnanediol was then formed (Fruton et al., 1958). Subsequent work demonstrated that adrenal tissue can convert c14-labeled cholesterol to labeled progesterone, as well as to corticosterone and cortisol, and that cholesterol is a more efficient precursor of the hormones than is acetate. Observations in animals limited to meal eating rather than ad libitum feeding, have shown that serum cholesterol was significantly raised (Cohn et al., 1962). The rats trained to eat their food in a short period each day also showed markedly increased lipid synthesis. The enhanced lipogenesis resulted in an increase in fat ceposition in adipose tissue. These findings have been interpreted to suggest that using frequent small feedings might prove to be beneficial to people who have abnormal lipid metabolism. This study is part of a larger problem whose purpose was to determine relationships that exist between serum cholesterol and concentrations of estrogens and the degradation products of androgens, adrenal steroid hormones, and progesterone in urine of healthy young adults consuming self-selected diets under home living conditions. Simultaneous studies of these factors in human subjects have been very limited. The objectives of this study was to determine the levels of serum cholesterol and urinary excretion values of pregnanediol, and any relationships between the two biochemical indices that might exist. The research was based on a group of university students (five women and four men) maintained on self-chosen diets who were eating two meals per day with no lunch or three meals a day. Urine specimens were collected for hormone estimation and finger-tip blood samples for cholesterol determination. Dietary records were also collected for dietary calculation. Chemical analyses of free and total cholesterol were made by using the method of Galloway et al. (1957). Determination of prenanediol in urine was made by modification of the method of Eberlein and Bongiovanni (1958) on thin-layer chromatography.

Peaches and apricots are important fruit crops in Utah. They are shipped to distant markets in Los Angeles, Chicago, New York, and several other places. These fruits may stay in the market channels for 2 to 4 weeks before they reach the consumer, and sometimes are held at the retail center at temperatures as high as 70-90° F. Decay of these fruits has been a serious problem facing shipping agencies, grocery stores, and the roadstand industry (Salunkhe, 1960). The quality of fresh as well as processed fruit is influenced by the stage of maturity at picking. Bedford and Robertson (1955), and Culpepper et al. (1955) pointed out that there has been a lack of agreement among several investigators as to the stage of maturity at which peaches can be harvested and successfully ripened for processing. The borderline between immature and mature fruit is of accentuated importance in regions where harvesting must occur at an early date to allow for the necessary transport and marketing period. Growers are, therefore, interested in the proper stage of maturity at which to harvest and shippers and retailers are interested in the effective storage to extend the life of the fruit and to promote consumer acceptance. In the quest for indices to determine the stage of maturity of deciduous fruits many physical, chemical and physiological characteristics have been studied. Firm-ness, ground color, flesh color, acidity, and soluble solids were found to be in decreasing order of correlation with increasing maturity of peaches (Rood, 1957). Conversely it was attributed that flavor, palatability, and maturity of peaches were directly related to soluble solids (Claypool, 1961). Leonard et al. (1953) reported --that the degree of maturity and flavor preference were predictable by soluble solids/acidity especially at lower acidity levels. Similar studies of a limited nature on apricots have been reported by Allen (1932), Strachan et al. (1951), and Luh (1961). Information is meager on post-harvest ripening of peaches and apricots for fresh-produce marketing. The investigations reported here were conducted to determine the relationship between firmness, acidity, soluble solids, and other biochemical constituents with maturity and storage of the fruits. The studies presented in this dissertation were carried out on peaches (variety Redhaven) and apricots (variety Large Early Montgamet), and include the results for the years 1962 and 1963.