Wild plant resources are harvested and managed by people in a variety of land-uses but few studies examine the interactions of landscape dynamics and the use and availability of wild plant resources. I address this question using a case study of common property lands with a history of community forestry and traditional shifting cultivation. Specifically I ask: What is the perceived importance of plant resources obtained in agricultural and forest environments? Have forest and agricultural land-use/land covers changed? How do landscape changes, and in particular shorter fallow times, influence the availability and use of plant resources? / The perceived importance of wild plant resources was studied using free-listing and ranking exercises with focus groups of men and women. Remote sensing and interviews served to analyse landscape dynamics (1976-2000) and to identify local forest conservation regulations. The impact of shorter fallow times on the availability of forage and firewood in agricultural fields was assessed by sampling 26 fields derived from short to long fallows, while a household survey served to characterize patterns of firewood collection. / Men attributed highest importance to commercial forest products, while resources most valued by women were domestic resources obtained in a variety of environments. High rates of forest retention were observed; conservation was focused on forests with high densities of commercial products. The agricultural zones shifted from a mosaic of diverse successional stages to a homogeneous landscape dominated by younger fallows and shorter fallow periods; these changes led to reductions in the availability of firewood and some forage species. Firewood collection was related to accessibility; areas with the least amount of firewood available (short-fallow cycles and low forest cover) experienced the highest collection pressure. / The findings demonstrate that indigenous territories can be very dynamic, even when rates of forest conservation are high, and that changes in land-use and landscape structure have important implications for the availability and use of wild plant resources. A conceptual model linking landscape dynamics to wild plant use is proposed and the significance of the results for community-based conservation initiatives is discussed.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 2008. / Title from title page screen (viewed on Sept. 15, 2009). Thesis advisor: Donald G. Hodges. Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (MscFor)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The state owned and managed forest and woodland resources during the colonial and postindependence periods in Mozambique. However, the centralised government forestry policies failed to stop the continual loss of natural forest and woodland resources under the state control. This study is concerned with the sustainability of a cimbirre (Androstachys johnson iidominated) woodland in a rural part of Mozambique. A. johnsonii trees are the major source of subsistence and income generation in southern Mozambique. Nevertheless, the exploitation of the species is running illegally because the diameters used for poles are below the harvestable diameter limit defined by the forestry legislation. This study is part of the research activities of a community-based natural resources management project being implemented in the Mabote District. The study focuses on the four villages covered by this project funded by the Government of Finland. It intends to develop guidelines for sustainable management of the woodland which is of a great concern to the rural woodland-dependent communities. The study examines the socio-economic context of commercial harvesting of A. johnsonii trees for poles by local communities, as well as the sustainability of the woodland resources concerned, especially with respect to the setting of minimum harvestable diameter limits. It is assumed that the current deliberate burning of cimbirre woodlands to kill the desired species would cease once a sustainable diameter limit is established. Three methods are used to respond to the objectives of the study, namely: (1) Semi-structured interviews and group discussions with key informants; (2) Structured questionnaire surveys submitted to households randomly selected within the four villages being studied; and (3) Forest resource assessment. The literature review documents the theoretical issues of sustainable management of natural resources and forest in particular, both past and present. It indicates that a state-community partnership should be considered for sustainable management of the area. It is also valid for communal areas in Mozambique in general, where the government legally controls forest resources. The implementation of the structural adjustment programme that Mozambique currently pursues, allied to the retrenchments in the gold mining industry in South Africa and the abolishment of recruitment of Mozambican labourers in the South African mining industry, have transformed the traditional forms of rural livelihoods. These measures provide rather large incentives for private interests to exploit poles for commercial purposes. Findings of this study based on the forest resource assessment provide an ecological basis for allowing harvesting of juvenile trees of A. johnsonii for poles by local communities, because the current level of harvesting trees does not lead to woodland degradation. Besides, the centralised policies that governed the allocation of forest resources both in colonial and postindependent Mozambique have transformed traditional authorities. This has led to a confusion of roles and conflicting power in forest management. Key words: Community involvement, deforestation, sustainable natural forest management. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gedurende die koloniale en post-onafhanklike periode in Mosambiek is die woude en bosland hulpbronne deur die staat beheer en besit. Dié gesentraliseerde regeringsbeleide het egter nie die voortdurende verlies aan natuurlike hulpbronne onder staatsbeheer gestop nie. Hierdie studie handle oor die volhoubaarheid van 'n cimbirre (Androstachys johnson ii-dominated) inheemse bos in 'n landelike deel van Mosambiek. A. johnsonii bome is die hoofbron van bestaan en inkomstegenerering in die suidelike deel van Mosambiek. Nogtans word dié spesie onwettiglik uitgebuit omdat die deursnee vir pale onder die oesbare minimum deursnee is, soos bepaal deur bosbouwetgewing. Dié studie vorm deel van die navorsingsaktiwiteite van 'n gemeenskapsbeheerde, natuurlike hulpbron bestuursprojek wat tans geïmplementeer word in die Mabote Distrik. Die fokus van dié studie is vier dorpies wat gedek word deur die projek. Die doelwit is om riglyne te ontwikkel vir die volhoubare bestuur van die bosgebied wat 'n groot bron van bekommernis is vir die landelike gemeenskappe wat van die bos afhanklik is. Die studie ondersoek die sosioekonomiese konteks vir die kommersiële oes van A. johnsonii bome vir pale deur die plaaslike gemeenskappe, sowel as die volhoubaarheid van die bosebied se hulpbronne hier betrokke, veral met die oog op die bepaling van 'n minimum deursnee beperking vir oesdoeleindes. Dit word aanvaar dat die huidige doelbewuste brand van cimbirre boslande, om die gewenste spesies dood te maak, beeïndig sal word as 'n volhoubare deursnee limiet vasgestel word. Dit sal gedoen word met behulp van insette deur die afhanklike gemeenskappe. Drie metodes is gebruik om die doelwitte van die studie te behaal; (1) Semigestruktureerde onderhoude en groepbesprekings met kerninformante; (2) Getruktureerde vraelys opname wat aan lukraak geselekteerde huishoudings binne die vier dorpies (wat deel maak van studie) gegee is; en (3) Hulpbronwaardering in die bos. Die literatuurstudie dokumenteer die teoretiese kwessies oor die volhoubare bestuur van natuurlike hulpbronne en dan spesifiek woude, beide in die verlede en in die huidige situasie. Die gevolgtrekking is dat 'n staatgemeenskapsvennootskap oorweeg moet word vir die volhoubare bestuur van die area. Dit geld ook in die algemeen vir die kommunale areas in Mosambiek, waar die regering wettiglik woudhulpbronne beheer. Die implementering van strukturele aanpassings programme tans in Mosambiek, asook die afdankings in die goudmynindustrie in Suid-Afrika en die beeïndiging aan die werwing van Mosambiekse arbeiders deur Suid-Afrika, het tradisionele vorms van landelike broodwinning getransformeer. Dit lei weer tot die misbruik van pale vir kommersiële doeleindes, deur die privaat sektor. Bevindings uit dié studie, gebaseer op die woudhulpbron waarderings, verskaf 'n ekologiese basis vir die oes van jong A. johnsonii bome vir pale deur die plaaslike gemeenskappe, want die huidige vlak van oes van dié bome lei nie tot boslandagteruitgang nie. Boonop het die gesentraliseerde beleide wat die toekenning van woudhulpbronne beheer, in beide 'n koloniale Mosambiek en 'n post-onafhanklike Mosambiek, tradisionele gesagsstrukture getransformeer. Dit het gelei tot 'n verwarring in rolle en 'n konflik in mag in inheemse bosbestuur. Key words: Deforestasie, gemeenskapsbetrokkenheid, volhoubare natuurlike bosbestuur.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Nyungwe Forest in the South West of Rwanda is surrounded by a dense human population (350 people/km') which depends on subsistence agriculture and livestock. Previous reports on the Forest have shown that its survival is threatened by illegal use of its resources. Participatory rural appraisal was conducted in five Communes next to the Forest to study the community's perceptions, uses and interests with respect to access and management of the Forest. Respondents perceived the Forest as a source of 18 categories of products of which only 14 were said to be of value for the respondents'livelihoods. Land, timber and minerals (gold) were the priority resources preferred by more than 55% of the respondents. Other important resources included fodder/pastures, wooden goods, fuelwood and poles. Fourteen different species were most preferred for timber, 16 for poles, 45 for medicinal materials and six for wooden goods. However, the majority of these species were preferred for multiple uses as timber, poles and medicines. A forest resource assessment was carried out to identify the stock of the preferred tree species. Not all woody resources mentioned as being preferred were available, with some tree species not found at all in the Forest. In order to identify tree species that can be used sustainably, different criteria including abundance (density), dominance, diameter size-class distribution and regeneration, were used in combination. Of the 12 tree species recorded in the Forest and most preferred for timber, only three species were present in sufficient abundance and sizes to allow sustainable utilisation. Of the 12 pole species identified, six were not vulnerable to exploitation, and of the preferred medicinal tree species only five were considered to fit into this category. Low resource availability and the need to address the interests of adjacent communities necessitated management options which enable access to some resources and benefits the communities as well as conservation measures to protect the biodiversity. A range of joint forest management options is discussed in order to assess the feasibility of a collaborative approach in the management of Nyungwe Forest. Some recommendations are made with respect to access to resources, the use of substitutes and areas for future research. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Nyungwe Bos in die suidweste van Rwanda word omring deur 'n digte bevolking van 350 mense/km- wat van bestaanslandbou en lewende hawe afhanklik is. Vorige verslae het aangedui dat die voortbestaan van die Bos bedreig word deur die onwettige gebruik van sy hulpbronne. 'n Evaluering is in vyf gemeenskappe (Communes) langs die Bos gedoen om die gemeenskap se persepsies oor, gebruike van en belangstelling in die toegang tot die Bos, sowel as die bestuur daarvan te bestudeer. Die mense van hierdie plattelandse gebied is by die evaluering betrek. Respondente sien die Bos as 'n bron van produkte wat in 18 kategorieë ingedeel kan word, maar waarvan slegs 14 kategorieë van waarde is vir die respondente om 'n bestaan te kan maak. Meer as 55% van die respondente het grond, hout en minerale (goud) as die belangrikste hulpbronne aangedui. Ander belangrike hulpbronne sluit in veevoer of weivelde, houtartikels, brandhout en pale. Die respondente het 14 verskillende houtspesies verkies as timmerhout, 16 vir pale, 45 vir medisinale gebruike, en ses vir houtartikels. Die meerderheid van hierdie spesies is egter verkies vir veelvuldige gebruike soos timmerhout, pale en medisyne. 'n Evaluering van die hulpbronne in die bos is uitgevoer om te bepaal hoeveel bome van die gunstelingspesies daar in die bos is. Nie al die houthulpbronne wat deur die respondente verkies is, was beskikbaar nie, en sommige boomspesies is glad nie in die Bos gevind nie. Ten einde boomspesies te identifiseer wat vir lewensmiddele gebuik kan word, is 'n kombinasie van verskillende kriteria gebruik, insluitende die hoeveelheid bome (digtheid), dominansie, die verspreiding van die verskillende klasse deursneegroottes, en regenerasie. Van die 12 boomspesies in die Bos wat na aanleiding van hierdie evaluering opgeteken is en wat voorheen as gunstelingspesies vir timmerhout aangedui is, is daar slegs drie wat volop en groot genoeg is om vir lewensmiddele gebruik te word. Van die 12 spesies wat vir pale geïdentifiseer is, is ses teen oorontginning bestand, en van die gunsteling medisinale boomspesies val slegs vyf in laasgenoemde kategorie. Lae hulpbronbeskikbaarheid en die behoefte om die aangrensende gemeenskappe se belange aan te spreek, het bestuuropsies genoodsaak wat toegang tot sommige hulpbronne moontlik maak en wat die gemeenskappe bevoordeel, sowel as bewaringsmaatreëls ten einde die biodiversiteit te beskerm. 'n Verskeidenheid gesamentlike bosbestuuropsies is bespreek ten einde die uitvoerbaarheid van 'n benadering van samewerking in die bestuur van die Nyungwe Bos te ondersoek. Enkele aanbevelings is gemaak wat betref toegang tot hulpbronne, die gebruik van plaasvervangers, en studiegebiede vir verdere navorsing.

Thesis (MScFor)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Deforestation in Malawi is said to reach 2.3% per annum and negatively affects agricultural production, the backbone of the country's economy. High dependence on indigenous wood for sale as fuelwood or charcoal by rural communities due to poverty largely contributes to this deforestation. Women and children suffer most because they spend more time collecting firewood than men, affecting other activities like child-care and education. The study, aimed at investigating ways to alleviate deforestation by increasing rural people's economic benefits from non-destructive indigenous fruit utilisation, was conducted in Mwanza District from February to June 2001. The district's customary forests which contain a wide variety of wild fruit species are currently deforested due mainly to charcoal production. Five out of 16 villages facing deforestation were randomly chosen by the lottery method. Group, individual and key informant interviews focused on the utilisation of preferred fruit species by communities while participatory resource assessment was used to determine availability and distribution of fruit trees. A market survey to assess fruit trade in the country was conducted in Balaka, Blantyre, Mangochi, Mwanza and Zomba Districts in early June 2001. Twenty-six wild fruit species were found to be utilised by villagers in the study area but Adansonia digitata (Baobab) was the most commonly found near villages and the most preferred fruit by 90% of respondents. Other preferred species were Tamarindus indica (Tamarind), Diospyros kirkii, Flacourtia indica and Vangueria infausta. Most fruit trees except for baobab were found to be of small size classes because of being young stems regenerating while others were shrubs. The poor largely depended on fruit as a meal and for sale. Mainly children and women sold baobab and tamarind within the villages while only men sold fruit at distant markets for more income. Middlemen largely benefited from fruit sales compared to villagers who sold at low prices and lacked marketing information. Fruit rot affected retailers outside the study area. Tree climbing to harvest fruit was mainly done by boys and destructive harvesting methods were associated with commercial use. Large, sweet tasting fruit were mainly chosen by rural communities for subsistence use. Land clearance, mast fruiting, perishability and seasonality of fruit seemed to have affected harvest both for subsistence and for sale. However, 89% of households owned fruit trees in homesteads and agricultural fields, said to be more protected than in communal lands with open access. Preferred wild fruit trees were rarely cut by the communities. Local fruit processing, mainly by women, included porridge and juice making and fruit drying while careful storage enabled baobab fruit to be stored for up to a year. Wild fruit plays an important role in the lives of rural communities mainly the poor. Communities attach value to the preferred fruit species but it is difficult to convince most of them to sell wild fruit unless value is added and price incentives are initiated. Regular marketing information could be provided to rural communities and policy makers should set fruit pricing guidelines to create price incentives. Domestication of the preferred fruit trees should be encouraged for continuous fruit supply. Simple fruit processing technologies for commercial purpose could be initiated for women mostly. Research is needed to determine sustainable harvesting levels of wild fruit and ways for participatory monitoring of the levels and harvesting methods used. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ontbossing in Malawi beloop 2.3% per jaar, wat beteken dat landbouproduksie, die ruggraat van die land se ekonomie, negatief geaffekteer word. Wat grootliks bydra tot hierdie ontbossing is dat die plattelandse gemeenskappe as gevolg van armoede hoogs afhanklik is van inheemse hout wat as brandhout of as houtskool verkoop word. Vroue en kinders ly die meeste omdat hulle meer tyd as mans spandeer om vuurmaakhout bymekaar te maak. Dit affekteer ander aktiwiteite soos kindersorg en opvoeding. Hierdie studie het ten doelom maniere te ondersoek waarvolgens ontbossing verlig kan word deur mense op die platteland se ekonomiese voordele uit die benutting van inheemse vrugte te vermeerder sonder dat daar enige omgewingskade aangebring word. Die studie is uitgevoer in die Mwanza Distrik vanaf Februarie 2001 tot Junie 2001. Die distrik se inheemse bosse wat 'n wye verskeidenheid wilde vrugtespesies bevat, word tans ontbos - hoofsaaklik as gevolg van die produksie van houtskool. Vyf uit die 16 dorpies wat ontbossing in die gesig staar, is op 'n lukrake wyse met die loterymetode gekies. In die onderhoude met groepe, individue, en sleutelinformante is gefokus op die benutting van vrugtespesies wat deur die gemeenskappe verkies word. Hulpbronevaluering is gebruik om die beskikbaarheid en verspreiding van vrugtebome te bepaal. Die gemeenskap is by hierdie evaluering betrek. Marknavorsing om vrugtehandel in die land te evalueer, is vroeg in Junie 2001 in die Balaka, Blantyre, Mangochi, Mwanza en Zomba distrikte gedoen. In die studie is bevind dat die inwoners van die area wat bestudeer is 26 wilde vrugtespesies benut. Adansonia digitata (Baobab/Kremetartboom) is egter die meeste naby die dorpies aangetref, en is deur 90% van die respondente as hulle gunsteling vrug aangedui. Ander gewilde spesies is Tamarindus indica (Tamarinde/Suurdadelboom), Diospyros kirkii, Flacourtia indica en Vangueria infausta. Die meeste vrugtebome, behalwe die baobab, val in die laer klasse wat grootte betref, omdat dit die jong lote is wat regenereer, terwyl ander struike is. Die arm mense is grootliks afhanklik van vrugte as 'n maaltyd en as verkoopsartikels. Hoofsaaklik kinders en vroue verkoop baobab- en tamarindevrugte in die dorpies, terwyl vrugte by verafgeleë markte slegs deur mans vir 'n groter inkomste verkoop word. Die middelman trek grootliks voordeel uit vrugteverkope, in vergelyking met die inwoners van die dorpies wat vrugte teen lae pryse verkoop as gevolg van 'n tekort aan bemarkingsinligting. Kleinhandelaars buite die studie-area is deur vrugteverrotting geaffekteer. Dit is hoofsaaklik seuns wat die bome klim om vrugte te oes, en destruktiewe oesmetodes is met kommersiële gebruik geassosieer. Plattelandse gemeenskappe verkies hoofsaaklik groot, soet vrugte vir bestaansgebruik. Dit wil voorkom of grondopruiming, die vrugvorming van byvoorbeeld akkers (mast fruiting), die bederfbaarheid en seisoensgebondenheid van vrugte, die oes affekteer vir bestaansgebruik sowel as vir verkope. Vrugtebome word egter deur 89% van die huishoudings besit en die bome by hierdie huise en in landbouvelde word beter beskerm as dié in gemeenskaplike lande met vrye toegang. Die gemeenskappe kap selde hulle gunsteling wilde vrugtebome uit. Plaaslike vrugteverwerking, hoofsaaklik deur vroue, sluit in die maak van pap en sap, asook die droog van vrugte, terwyl sorgvuldige bewaring daartoe kan lei dat baobabvrugte vir tot 'n jaar lank gebêre kan word. Wilde vrugte speel 'n belangrike rol in die lewens van plattelandse gemeenskappe, veral vir die armes. Die gemeenskappe heg waarde aan hulle gunstelingvrugtespesies, maar dit is moeilik om die meeste te oortuig om wilde vrugte te verkoop - behalwe as waarde bygevoeg word en prysaansporings ingestel word. Gereelde bemarkingsinligting kan aan plattelandse gemeenskappe voorsien word, en beleidbepalers behoort riglyne vir vrugtepryse daar te stelom prysaansporings te skep. Die mense behoort aangemoedig te word om hulle gunstelingvrugtebome by hulle huise te plant om 'n voortdurende vrugtevoorraad te verseker. Eenvoudige vrugteverwerkingtegnologie kan vir kommersiële doeleindes vir hoofsaaklik vroue ingestel word. Navorsing is nodig om volhoubare oesvlakke van wilde vrugte te bepaal, sowel as maniere vir die deelnemende monitering van hierdie vlakke en die oesmetodes wat gebruik word.

Thesis (MS en S)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Jonkershoek is a scenic valley situated on the south-eastern periphery of Stellenbosch in the Western Cape. The study area of around 62 square kilometres has a pleasant rural atmosphere that can be ascribed to a unique combination of cultural and natural elements. It is in the national interest that these characteristics be preserved for posterity. This study represents an investigation into the viability of the sustainable utilisation of the valley, for the benefit of current and future residents and visitors alike. Firstly, a study was made of different approaches in environmental ethics in an effort to find a frame of reference against which people make decision that impact on the environment. The regulatory and planning framework was assessed to establish whether it was sufficient to protect the environment and people. A population profile was compiled to form a picture of the socio-economic conditions in the valley. Finally, a survey was conducted by testing the needs and expectation of residents against several development and conservation issues. Practitioners from the planning field were also involved in this survey. Resource conservation and development seems to be the most appropriate ethical approach for sustainable development. However, sustainable utilisation will only be possible if a balance is found between economic efficiency, environmental integrity and human well-being. It has been established that sufficient measures are in place to protect people and the environment and that integrated development planning was instrumental in this regard. The biggest shortcoming was on economic level and this is reflected in the socio-economic gap between landowners and previously disadvantaged communities. The sustainable utilisation of the Jonkershoek valley is attainable, on condition that the identified shortcomings are addressed through the utilisation of existing and potential development and conservation opportunities. In this assignment a number of suggestions are made that could promote this process. The sustainable utilisation of the Jonkershoek valley is an attainable ideal that requires the dedication of the entire community. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Jonkershoek is 'n skilderagtige vallei suidoos van Stellenbosch in die Wes-Kaap. Die studiegebied, wat ongeveer 62 vierkante kilometer beslaan, het 'n aangenarne landelike atmosfeer wat toegeskryf kan word aan 'n buitengewone kombinasie van kulturele en natuurlike elemente. Dit is in nasionale belang dat hierdie kenmerke vir die nageslag bewaar word. In hierdie studie word ondersoek ingestel na die lewensvatbaarheid van die volhoubare benutting van die Jonkershoekvallei, tot voordeel van huidige en toekomstige inwoners en besoekers. Daar is eerstens gekyk na verskillende benaderinge in orngewingsetiek, in 'n soeke na 'n verwysingsraamwerk waarteen die mens besluite neem wat die omgewing raak. 'n Bevolkingsprofiel van die inwoners is saamgestel om 'n beeld te form van sosio-ekonorniese toestande in die vallei. Verder is gekyk of die wetlike en beplanningsraamwerk voldoende is om die omgewing te beskerm. 'n Opname is gemaak deur die verwagtinge en behoeftes van inwoners te toets aan die hand van verskeie ontwikkelings- en bewaringsvraagstukke. Praktisyns uit die beplanningsveld is ook betrek by die opname. Hulpbron bewaring en ontwikkeling blyk die mees toepaslike etiese vertrekpunt te wees vir volhoubare ontwikkeling. Volhoubare benutting is egter slegs moonlik indien 'n balans gevind kan word tussen ekonomiese doeltreffendheid, omgewings-integriteit en menslike welstand. Daar is bevind dat voldoende maatreels in plek is om die mens en die omgewing te beskerm en dat geintegreerde ontwikkelingsbeplanning instrumenteel is in hiedie opsig. Die grootste tekortkoming Ie op ekonomiese vlak en word veral gemanifesteer in 'n sosio-ekonomiese gaping tussen grondeienaars en voorheen benadeelde gemeenskappe. Die volhoubare benutting van die Ionkershoekvallei is wei haalbaar, op voorwaarde dat die ge"identifiseerde tekortkomige aangespreek word deur van bestaande en potensiele ontwikkelings- en bewaringsgeleenhede gebruik te maak. In hierdie werkstuk word 'n aantal voorstelle gemaak wat hierdie proses kan bevorder. Die volhoubare benutting van die Jonkershoekvallei is dus 'n haalbare ideaal maar vereis dat dit aktief nagesteef word deur die hele gerneenskap.

This study focused on assessing the condition and creating a carbon inventory of forests in the Matiwane area of the Transkei. This entailed the use of aerial photography in tracing forest cover change from 1942 to 2007 coupled with ground-truthing to assess whether the forests have in any way endured degradation over the years with a potential reduction in carbon stocks as a result. This study revealed both the loss and gain of biomass in the area with a general trend of forests being continuously converted to agricultural fields resulting in reduced forest area, stem density, tree density and carbon loss in different pools of the forests, reflecting that these forests are degraded. The conversion has resulted in the reduction in the number of species from a mean of 11±0.57 species/200m² in intact forests to 1±0.23species/200m² plot in degraded forests. It was also revealed that approximately 5.2 % (791 hectares) of 15 352 hectares of forest area was lost as a result of the conversion of forest land to agricultural fields from 1942 to 2007 with 99 % of the clearing occurring in the last 33 years (1974-2007) and of which 60 % ( 4 77 hectares) occurred from 1995 to 2007, indicating that forest degradation in these forests is on the increase. The assessment also revealed some areas that were nonforest in 1942 that have accumulated woody biomass (BAA), composed mainly of Acacia sp accounting for 51.18 MgC.ha⁻¹ (Megagrams of carbon per hectare) and total carbon stocks of 0.02 TgC (Teragrams of carbon). The degradation of these forests induced a reduction in carbon stocks from 311.68±23.69 MgC.ha⁻¹ (to a soil depth 0-50 cm) in intact forest to 73.46±12.34 MgC.ha⁻¹ in degraded forests. The total carbon stocks in the degraded forests were approximated at 0.06 TgC and the BAA areas 0.02 TgC with 4.7 TgC in intact forests. The degradation of these forests has resulted in the net carbon loss of 0.19 TgC between 1942 and 2007 but 4.76 TgC is still locked in these forests. The large difference in carbon stocks between intact and degraded forests indicated the need to reduce the degradation of these forests to prevent further carbon loss and reduction of the carbon sequestration potential of these forests.

Human appropriation of natural resources, and the consequent loss of habitats, means that ecological restoration may in the future become a vital conservation tool. For this to happen, we have to understand the processes and factors that govern community assembly, and their management. Here I analyze data on community structure (richness, evenness, diversity, composition) of assemblages (millipedes, spiders, dung beetles, plants, birds, rodents), and on soil chemical and physical properties, to describe and evaluate post-disturbance dune forest regeneration patterns. Data were collected from program of a dune mining company), from post-mining rehabilitating dune forests, and from self-regenerating dune forests in northern KwaZulu-Natal. Both succession theory and community assembly theory predict that a species' niche will determine when it will colonize new sites, and by extension, what the eventual species composition will be. This type of control should result in deterministic regeneration patterns for a community. In support of this view, I found that the majority of habitat-age related changes in community structure and ecosystem function were either towards benchmark values (and will reach these values in less than 65 years post-disturbance), or were already equal to the benchmark. Age-related trajectories were repeatable between surveys and post-mining sites were changing as fast or faster than spontaneously regenerating sites. Moreover, detailed analysis of changes in community composition of millipedes, dung beetles, herbs, trees, birds and rodents showed that all of the taxa were also regaining the benchmark's species composition. However, community change was dependent on how it was measured - dung beetles recovered only species presence, but others relative abundances as well. Changes were almost never exponential, suggesting that colonization and extinction are not the orderly events foreseen by equilibrium biodiversity theory. Furthermore, the average abundances of birds, trees and millipedes in undisturbed dune forest patches were correlated with colonization success, suggesting that post-disturbance recovery through colonization may be controlled from outside the local community, rather than by species interactions. The recovery of the spider community appeared to be towards the benchmark forest community, but spider species composition was critically linked to microhabitat structure. Because microhabitat is not necessarily restored concurrently with forest community structure, the spider assemblage (and possibly other invertebrates) may not recover the desired pre-disturbance structure or composition. Dune forests thus seem to be resilient to mining disturbances, since most taxa were recovering structure and composition. However, classic successional and community assembly theories are unlikely to fully explain these community recovery mechanisms. More likely, post-disturbance recovery occurs because a new habitat passively "samples" the rain of dispersing propagules and individuals, leading to a high probability of capturing the average species composition of the region. A conceptual model of dispersal in the landscape suggested that species composition of new habitats might equilibrate to the composition of the closest habitat undergoing the least amount of species compositional change, although this may not apply to all taxa. This model may serve as the basis for directing future research and restoration management. / Thesis (DPhil (Zoology))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

This thesis will discuss how the application of place theory might provide insight into how a selection of Xhosa-speaking people in a rural village (Ntloko), in the former Ciskei of the Eastern Cape, interact with and establish relationships with the local indigenous thicket forest (ihlathi). I am concerned with how these influence residents' perceptions and attitudes (relational epistemologies) towards this resource, and how these may (or may not) translate into conservation practices. I am also interested in how socio-political and economic changes have altered these people/place relations (including gender) and their corresponding cultural perceptions. It is argued that the local thicket forest's significance and importance moves beyond the economic and utilitarian value of its natural resources. The thicket plays an important part in local identity construction, due to both its socio-cultural significance and its role in local livelihoods. People form meaningful attachments and relationships (relational epistemologies ) with the thicket as a place, through their interactions with it. While this may or may not result in actions and attitudes in-line with the conservation agenda, it is shown that this relationship is necessary for a local concern and stake in the natural environment. Those who have no or minimal interaction, such as many of the young women of Ntloko, have no opportunity to forge a relationship with it. Ihlathi may be known through narrative, but not personal experience, and as such no significant attachments can be formed, and thus concern for its conservation status is irrelevant. It is clear that if you remove people from an environment, you remove the stake they hold in the environment in question, thereby disrupting the relationship, and alienating people from nature. While a relational epistemology may not equate to conservation practices, it does imply a stake or concern in the environment, and as such, may provide an opportunity for conservationists to work with local communities. Resistance to conservation and development projects that aim to exclude local interaction, and therefore relationships, with the environment, will always be strong when local identities are intricately tied to the places and experiences that form them. Threatening that relationship threatens local identities and the attachments that orient them.

Community forestry is an evolving approach to forest management, shown to maintain forest cover, while generating income for local communities. In Sierra Norte (SN), a region with no public protected areas, indigenous communities have been actively conserving their forests for decades, through conservation zoning and careful management of their logging areas. This study found that across 22 communities in SN, an estimated 2,949,116.50 m3 of timber were produced from 1993 to 2013, while the region maintains 78% forest cover. About 75% of the forest is under some form of community conservation. Community governance plays a major role, as rules and regulations regarding use, access, and conservation of communal lands are established and enforced by community members. The findings of this study support arguments that advocate for community forest management, as forest communities prove to maintain forest cover and decrease degradation, thus reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing forest carbon stocks.