Formic acid (FA) has been considered as one of the most promising materials for hydrogen storage today. The catalytic decarboxylation of formic acid ideally leads to the formation of CO2 and H2, and such CO2/H2 mixtures can be successfully applied in fuel cells. A large number of transition-metal based homogeneous catalysts with high activity and selectivity have been reported for the formic acid decarboxylation. In this presentation, we report ruthenium and rhodium complexes containing an N, N′-diimine ligand for the selective decomposition of formic acid to H2 and CO2 in water in the absence of any organic additives. Among them, the Ru complex could provide a TOF (turnover frequency) of 12 000 h–1 and a TON (turnover number) of 350 000 at 90 °C in the HCOOH/HCOONa aqueous solution. In addition to that, efficient production of high-pressure H2 and CO2 (24.0 MPa (3480 psi)) was achieved through the decomposition of formic acid with no formation of CO by this Ru complex. Moreover, well-defined ruthenium (II) PN3P pincer complexes were also developed for the reversible reaction-hydrogenation of carbon dioxide. Excellent product selectivity and catalytic activity with TOF and TON up to 13,000 h-1 and 33,000, respectively, in a THF/H2O biphasic system were achieved. Notably, effective conversion of carbon dioxide from the air into formate was conducted in the presence of an amine, allowing easy product separation and catalyst recycling.

The importance of Hydrogen (H2) in current global energy systems is undeniable. Moving from the energy systems depending on fossil fuel to energy systems that are carbon-free is a necessity, thus solutions such as hydrogen economy is required. Especially after recent geopolitical challenges in Europe which could make the energy acquisition a crucial problem. Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC) are applicable pathways for transitioning H2 into energy and to avoid the storage and transportation limitations of gaseous and liquid H2. Formic acid (FA) is an attractive alternative for such purposes due to its minimal level of toxicity and its significant volumetric storage capacity for H2. In this study, a Life cycle assessment (LCA) of the supply chain involving the Trans-Atlantic export of energy from Canada to Germany is conducted using formic acid as a LOHC and OxFA process to convert biomass to formic acid. The environmental impacts of all units and processes involved in this supply chain are examined, and the results are compared against other traditional systems for hydrogen production. A sensitivity analysis was also performed to recognize the crucial contributors and assess the processes and units that impose considerable influence on the overall environmental impact. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc) / Hydrogen (H2) plays a crucial role in transitioning from fossil fuel-based to carbon-free energy systems, a shift highlighted by recent geopolitical challenges in Europe. Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC) offer a solution for hydrogen storage and transport issues associated with its gaseous and liquid states. Formic acid (FA) is particularly promising as a LOHC due to its low toxicity and high hydrogen storage capacity. This study conducts a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a supply chain that uses formic acid to export energy from Canada to Germany, involving the OxFA process for converting biomass to formic acid. The environmental impacts of all processes in this supply chain are evaluated and compared with traditional hydrogen production methods. Additionally, a sensitivity analysis identifies key contributors and assesses their impact on the overall environmental footprint.

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PtBi/C e PdBi/C foram preparados em diferentes razões atômicas (100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 e 50:50) pelo método de redução via borohidreto de sódio (com adição total da solução de borohidreto em uma única etapa) utilizando H2PtCl6.6H2O, Pd(NO3)2, (BiNO3)3.5H2O como fonte de metais, Vulcan® (XC72-Cabot) como suporte de carbono e com uma carga metálica correspondente a 20% em massa. Os eletrocatalisadores obtidos foram caracterizados por difração de raios-X (DRX), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET) e voltametria cíclica (VC). A atividade dos diferentes materiais preparados para a oxidação eletroquímica do ácido fórmico foi realizada em eletrólito ácido e alcalino utilizando-se as técnicas de voltametria cíclica, e cronoamperometria. Para estes estudos foi utilizado a técnica do eletrodo de camada fina porosa. A caracterização eletroquímica permitiu comparar o desempenho eletroquímico da platina e paládio, além de avaliar o benefício da presença do bismuto nas razões atômicas propostas. Os difratogramas de raio-X (DRX) confirmaram para todos os compostos de PtBi/C e PdBi/C a formação da estrutura cúbica de face centrada (cfc) característicos da rede cristalina da platina e do Paládio respectivamente. Outros picos encontrados foram associados a presença de fases de óxido de bismuto em ambos os compostos, PtBi/C e PdBi/C. A microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET) indicou que a presença de maiores teores de bismuto não acarretaram em aumento do tamanho médio da partícula. Os resultados eletroquímicos em meio alcalino indicaram que ainda é necessário uma otimização da concentração de ácido fórmico para que possamos observar melhores resultados quanto à adição de bismuto na platina ou paládio, no entanto os estudos em meio ácido mostraram o efeito benéfico da adição de bismuto tanto para platina quanto para o paládio. / PtBi/C and PdBi/C were prepared with different atomic ratios (100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50) by sodium borohydride reduction method (with total addition of the borohydride solution in just one step) using H2PtCl6.6H2O, Pd(NO3)2, (BiNO3)3.5H2O as source of metals, Vulcan® (XC72-Cabot) as carbon support and a metallic charge correspondent to 20% mass. The obtained electrocatalysts were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The activity of the different materials used for the formic acid electrochemical oxidation was performed in acid and alkaline electrolyte through cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry, using the porous thin-film electrode technique. The electrochemical characterization allowed for the comparison between the platinum and palladium electrochemical performance, as well as the evaluation of the benefit of having bismuth in the proposed atomic ratios. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) diffractograms confirmed, for every PtBi/C and PdBi/C compounds, the formation of the face-centered cubic structure (fcc) distinctive to platinum and palladiums crystalline net, respectively. Other peaks were found associated to the presence of bismuth oxide phases in both compounds, PtBi/C and PdBi/C. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) indicated that a higher bismuth presence did not result in a larger particle size. The electrochemical results in alkaline medium indicated that an optimization on formic acid concentration is still necessary so that better results concerning bismuth addition to platinum or palladium could be observed, although the studies done in acid medium presented the beneficial effect of bismuth addition to both platinum and palladium.

A auto-organização é uma das principais características de sistemas naturais. Os fenômenos auto-organizados podem emergir em sistemas suficientemente afastados do equilíbrio termodinâmico. A não-linearidade intrínseca aos sistemas eletroquímicos, permite inúmeros exemplos de comportamento complexo, sendo, grande parte, em eletrocatálise. Apesar do considerável progresso no entendimento dos aspectos mecanísticos da eletro-oxidação oscilatória de moléculas orgânicas pequenas, aparentemente não existe nenhum estudo sistemático do impacto de modificadores superficiais na dinâmica oscilatória. Nesta tese de doutorado, a eletro-oxidação oscilatória do ácido fórmico em bimetálicos de platina, com estanho ou bismuto, é comparada com aquela obtida em platina policristalina. A modificação da superfície afeta drasticamente a dinâmica oscilatória. As oscilações auto-organizadas de potencial foram usadas como sonda para a atividade eletrocatalítica dos eletrodos bimetálicos de platina. Em intermetálicos ordenados de platina e estanho, a velocidade de envenenamento diminui significativamente, o que retarda a desativação da superfície e promove oscilações de longa duração, sem precedentes, com estabilização de mais de 2200 ciclos. Isto corresponde a 30-40 vezes mais estável com relação ao eletrodo de platina. A presença de estanho na superfície do eletrodo tem grande impacto na produção de CO2, como observado em experimentos, modelagem e simulações numéricas, com aumento na velocidade das etapas produtoras de CO2. Com as informações adicionais obtidas em regime oscilatório, frente os experimentos em estado estacionário, foi possível estimar o efeito catalítico dos modificadores como estanho ou bismuto em eletrodos de platina, bem como, alguns aspectos mecanísticos da eletro-oxidação de formaldeído, ácido fórmico, metanol e etanol. / The self-organization is one of the most important features of nature. The self-organization phenomenon can emerge in sufficiently far from thermodynamic equilibrium systems. The non-linearity laws of the electrochemistry systems, allows several examples of complex behavior, most of them in electrocatalysis. Despite the considerable progress in understanding of the mechanistic aspects of the oscillatory electro-oxidation of C1 molecules, there is a apparently no systematic studies concerning the impact of surfaces modifiers on the oscillations dynamics. In this doctoral thesis the electro-oxidation of formic acid on platinum bimetallic electrodes, with tin and bismuth, was compared to that observed on polycrystalline platinum electrodes. Overall, the obtained results were very reproducible, robust and allowed a detailed analysis on the correlation between the catalytic activity and the oscillation dynamics. The modified surfaces promote drastic effect on the oscillatory dynamics. The self-organized oscillations were used as a probe to the electrocatalytic activity of bimetallic electrodes. In ordered intermetallic electrodes of the platinum and tin, the rate of surface poisoning significantly decrease, which slow the surface deactivation and promotes long-lasting oscillations, unprecedented stabilization of more than 2200 oscillatory cycles. This corresponds to 30-40 fold stabilization with respect to the behavior of platinum electrodes. The adsorbed tin affects the reaction pathways that produce CO2, as observed in experiments, modeling and numerical simulations. Further information obtained in oscillatory regime permitted the estimative of the catalytic effect of the surface modifiers, such as tin and bismuth, and some mechanistic aspects of the electro-oxidation of formaldehyde, formic acid, methanol and ethanol.

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) dosimetry using the well established dosimeter material alanine is a generally accepted dosimetric method for measurements of high absorbed doses. Alanine EPR dosimetry is however not sensitive enough for high precision measurements of low (< 5 Gy) absorbed doses using reasonably measurement times and small dosimeters. It has therefore not been possible to fully exploit the benefits of EPR dosimetry for applications in radiation therapy. The aim of this thesis was to show that sensitive EPR dosimetry is a competitive method for applications in radiation therapy fulfilling the requirements of measurement precision. Our strategy for reaching this goal was to search for new, more sensitive, EPR dosimeter materials fulfilling the criteria of being tissue equivalent, having a high radical yield and having a narrow EPR spectrum suitable for dosimetry. The best materials were found among formates and dithionates. Doping with small amounts of metal ions and recrystallisation in D2O were tested to further increase the sensitivity. Four promising candidate materials were tested regarding radical stability and dose response and among them lithium formate was chosen for dosimetry in radiation therapy applications. A high precision EPR dosimetry method was developed using lithium formate. The method included the development of a production method for EPR dosimeters with very homogenous shape, mass and composition. A read-out process was developed with maximal measurement precision for reasonably short measurement times. The method also included a dosimeter quality control before actual dose measurements. Measurement accuracy was controlled for every new dosimeter batch. This high precision lithium formate EPR dosimetry method was evaluated for pretreatment verifications of intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) treatment plans. The precision and accuracy was shown to be sufficient (< 5 %) for measurements of doses above 1.5 Gy using one single dosimeter and a measurement time of 15 minutes. The described evaluation is therefore a demonstration of the improved precision at low dose determinations that is available with our sensitive EPR dosimeter materials. While the EPR signal intensity is proportional to absorbed dose, the signal shape is in some cases dependent on the radiation quality. A new method is presented for simultaneous measurements of beam LET (linear energy transfer) and absorbed dose in heavy charged particle beams using potassium dithionate EPR dosimetry. The study shows that when irradiating a dosimeter with 35 MeV carbon ions, the ratio of the signal amplitudes from two radicals in potassium dithionate vary along the track indicating a dependence on linear energy transfer, LET. Potassium dithionate may therefore be a promising EPR dosimeter material for simultaneous measurements of absorbed dose and LET in heavy charged particle radiation fields.

Atmospheric corrosion takes place on most metals as they interact with thesurrounding environment. A degradation of the metal is the common result,which often leads to a shortened lifespan of the material. Hence, knowledge onthe fundamental interaction between a gas containing corrosive constituentsand a metal surface, which is the starting point of atmospheric corrosion, isimportant in many contexts. As the nature of atmospheric corrosion is inherentlycomplex, it imposes demands on the analytical studies that are neededin order to understand the fundamentals on a molecular level. Consequently,in-situ vibrational techniques, providing molecular information, have beenutilized in this work to study atmospheric corrosion by targeting the initialstages of the interaction between corrosive air and a metal surface. The initialstages (from minutes until days of exposure) were studied as these havea large influence on the atmospheric corrosion for prolonged exposure times. More specifically, the interaction between humidified air to which organicacids were added, and zinc was targeted in order to address a situation inindoor atmospheric corrosion, where organic acids are of importance. Zinc isa constituent in e.g. brass, which is an alloy used in many indoor applications. A systematic investigation utilizing complementary acting vibrational techniquesthus enabled detailed information on the mechanisms of the onsetof atmospheric corrosion of zinc induced by acetic and formic acid. Corrosionproducts of both two dimensional and three dimensional character couldbe separately studied by combining VSFS (interface sensitive), IRAS (nearsurfacesensitive), and CRM (bulk sensitive). The Zn surface was found to be heterogeneous with different hydroxylgroups present on the surface. As this surface was exposed to formic or aceticacid, the OH groups on the surface were rapidly displaced in a ligand exchangewith formate or acetate. These ligands, organised in two dimensionalstructures, promoted corrosion by weakening the bonds of the Zn atoms totheir surrounding matrix. The subsequent growth of three dimensional corrosion products, Zn hydroxyacetate and formate, observed within short exposure times of Zn exposedto acetic and formic acid, was found to be electrochemical in nature.Cathodic areas consisting of more crystalline ZnO were observed. The potentialdifference between these more noble areas on the surface and those of lessnoble character created an electrochemical cell, initiating release of Zn ionsinto the aqueous adlayer in the anodic reactions. These Zn ions precipitatedas localised corrosion products. The cathodic areas increased the local pHon the surface, thereby promoting precipitation in their vicinity. The resultson initial stages of this type of corrosion were found to have similarities withprevious field studies of Zn exposed to real indoor environments. One way to decrease the corrosion rate of zinc is by adsorbing a corrosioninhibitor to the metal surface in order to protect it. As a model for sucha corrosion inhibitor, octadecanethiol (CH3(CH2)17SH) was seen to provideincreased corrosion protection of both reduced and oxidised Zn substrates byforming an adsorbed surface layer with an ordered structure. / QC 20100719

Carbon nanostructures are a wide field with many applications. The use of carbon nanostructures as support in heterogeneous catalysis is a key development that led together with the use of nanoparticles to a significant cost reduction of catalysts. Catalysts designed in this way are widely applied in fuel cell technologies. For portable devices especially low temperature fuel cells are desirable with low hazards for the user. One technology which fulfills these requirements is the direct formic acid fuel cell (DFAFC). DFAFC have many promising characteristics, such as high electromotive force and easy fuel handling. However, they still suffer from too low power output and lifetime for commercialization. This thesis focusses on two main aspects: the synthesis of carbon nanostructures by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and their application as catalyst support. The materials are investigated by many different techniques ranging from transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to fuel cell tests. Different carbon nanostructures could be synthesized by catalytic CVD on palladium (Pd) nanoparticles. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs) and helical carbon nanofibers (HCNFs) were grown, selectively, dependent on temperature, using acetylene as carbon precursor. Especially HCNF raised further interest due to their unique structure. A growth model for HCNFs was developed based on an anisotropic extrusion model. The synthesis conditions for HCNFs were optimized until an almost 100 % purity with very high efficiency was obtained. The unique helical but fiber-like structure made the material very interesting as support for heterogeneous catalysis. Several catalysts based on Pd nanoparticle decorated HCNFs were developed. The synthesis methods ranged from standard methods like the polyol method to phase-transfer methods. The catalysts showed very promising results for the electro-oxidation of methanol, ethanol and formic acid. This makes them highly attractive for fuel cell applications. The catalysts were tested in DFAFC. The superiority of HCNF-based catalysts is attributed to the good attachment of nanoparticles to the defect-rich and easy to functionalize surface of HCNFs in combination with adequate film forming properties during electrode preparation. / Nanostrukturerat kol är ett mycket brett fält med ett stort antal tillämpningar. Användning av kolnanostrukturer som support för heterogena katalysmaterial har tillsammans med utvecklingen av nanopartiklar lett till en avsevärd minskning av kostnaden för katalysatorer. Katalysatorer designade på detta sätt används frekvent i bränsleceller. För portabla tillämpningar är utvecklingen av säkra och miljövänliga lågtemperaturceller mycket viktig. En teknologi som uppfyller dessa kriterier är bränsleceller som drivs med myrsyra (DFAFC). Sådana bränsleceller har många önskvärda egenskaper, såsom en hög elektromotorisk kraft och en enkel hantering av bränslet. Trots dessa goda egenskaper har de också en del nackdelar som hindrar en full kommersialisering. De två mest problematiska är en för låg genererad effekt samt en för kort livslängd på katalysatorerna. Denna avhandling fokuserar på två huvudpunkter som adresserar dessa problem; tillverkning och karaktärisering av kolnanostrukturer producerade med CVD, och deras tillämpningar som support för katalysatorer. Materialen karaktäriseras med en rad olika tekniker, allt från transmission-elektronmikroskopi till bränslecellstester. Olika kolnanostrukturer har syntetiserats med katalytisk CVD på palladium (Pd) nanopartiklar. Produktionen av flerväggiga kolnanorör, kolfibrer och heliska kolnanofibrer har tillverkats med acetylen som kolkälla och genom att variera temperaturen kunde innehållet av olika typer av nanostrukturerat kol kontrolleras. Särskilt stort intresse har de heliska kolnanofibrerna rönt på grund av deras unika struktur. Vi beskriver en tillväxtmekanism baserad på en anisotrop diffusionsmodell. Genom att justera produktionsparametrarna visar vi att heliska kolnanofibrer kunde tillverkas med nära 100 %-ig renhet och hög effektivitet. Den unika heliska och fiberlika strukturen är mycket intressant for tillämpningar som support för heterogena katalysatorer. Ett flertal kompositer för katalytiska tillämpningar har utvecklats baserade på heliska kolnanofibrer, dekorerade med heterogena katalysatorer genom en rad olika kemiska/fysikaliska tekniker. De syntetiserade materialen visar mycket goda katalytiska egenskaper för att oxidera metanol, etanol och myrsyra. Därigenom blir de mycket attraktiva för användning i bränsleceller. Vi korrelerar de goda katalytiska egenskaperna med en bra vidhäftning av nanopartiklarna på de heliska kolnanofibrerna defekter, deras goda ledningsförmåga, bra egenskaper för att förbereda elektroder, samt deras stora yta i förhållande till deras volym och vikt.