Nanoparticles have a key role in today's biotechnological research owing to the rapid advancement of nanotechnology. While metallic, polymer, and semiconductor based artificial nanoparticles are widely used as labels or targeted drug delivery agents, labeled and label-free detection of natural nanoparticles promise new ways for viral diagnostics and therapeutic applications. The increasing impact of nanoparticles in bio- and nano-technology necessitates the development of advanced tools for their accurate detection and characterization. Optical microscopy techniques have been an essential part of research for visualizing micron-scale particles. However, when it comes to the visualization of individual nano-scale particles, they have shown inadequate success due to the resolution and visibility limitations. Interferometric microscopy techniques have gained significant attention for providing means to overcome the nanoparticle visibility issue that is often the limiting factor in the imaging techniques based solely on the scattered light. In this dissertation, we develop a rigorous physical model to simulate the single nanoparticle optical response in a common-path wide-field interferometric microscopy (WIM) system. While the fundamental elements of the model can be used to analyze nanoparticle response in any generic wide-field imaging systems, we focus on imaging with a layered substrate (common-path interferometer) where specular reflection of illumination provides the reference light for interferometry. A robust physical model is quintessential in realizing the full potential of an optical system, and throughout this dissertation, we make use of it to benchmark our experimental findings, investigate the utility of various optical configurations, reconstruct weakly scattering nanoparticle images, as well as to characterize and discriminate interferometric nanoparticle responses. This study investigates the integration of advanced optical schemes in WIM with two main goals in mind: (i) increasing the visibility of low-index nanoscale particles via pupil function engineering, pushing the limit of sensitivity; (ii) improving the resolution of sub-diffraction-limited, low-index particle images in WIM via reconstruction strategies for shape and orientation information. We successfully demonstrate an overall ten-fold improvement in the visibility of the low-index sub-wavelength nanoparticles as well as up to two-fold extended spatial resolution of the interference-enhanced nanoparticle images. We also systematically examine the key factors that determine the signal in WIM. These factors include the particle type, size, layered substrate design, defocus and nanoparticle polarizability. We use the physical model to demonstrate how these factors determine the signal levels, and demonstrate how the layered substrate can be designed to optimize the overall signal, while defocus scan can be used to maximize it, as well as its signature can be utilized for particle discrimination purposes for both dielectric particles and resonant metallic particles. We introduce a machine learning based particle characterization algorithm that relies on supervised learning from model. The particle characterization is limited to discrimination based on nanosphere size and type in the scope of this dissertation.

Atmospheric turbulence limits the resolving power of astronomical telescopes by distorting the paths of light between distant objects of interest and the imaging camera at the telescope. After many light-years of travel, passing through the turbulence in that last 100km of a photon’s journey results in a blurred image in the telescope, no less than 1” (arc-second) in width. To achieve higher resolutions, corresponding to smaller image widths, various methods have been proposed with varying degrees of effectiveness and practicality. Space telescopes avoid atmospheric turbulence completely and are limited in resolution solely by the size of their mirror apertures. However, the design and maintenance cost of space telescopes, which increases prohibitively with size, has limited the number of space telescopes deployed for astronomical imaging purposes. Ground based telescopes can be built larger and more cheaply, so atmospheric compensation schemes using adaptive optical cancellation mirrors can be a cheaper substitute for space telescopes. Adaptive optics is referred to here as the use of electronic control of optical component to modify the phase of an incident ray within an optical system like an imaging telescope. Fast adaptive optics systems operating in real-time can be used to correct the optical aberrations introduced by atmospheric turbulence. To compensate those aberrations, they must first be measured using a wavefront sensor. The wavefront estimate from the wavefront sensor can then be applied, in a closed-loop system, to a deformable mirror to compensate the incoming wavefront. Many wavefront sensors have been proposed and are in used today in adaptive optics and atmospheric turbulence measurement systems. Experimental results comparing the performance of wavefront sensors have also been published. However, little detailed analyses of the fundamental similarities and differences between the wavefront sensors have been performed. This study concentrates on fourmain types of wavefront sensors, namely the Shack-Hartmann, pyramid, geometric, and the curvature wavefront sensors, and attempts to unify their description within a common framework. The quad-cell is a wavefront slope detector and is first examined as it lays the groundwork for analysing the Shack-Hartmann and pyramid wavefront sensors. The quad-cell slope detector is examined, and a new measure of performance based on the Strehl ratio of the focal plane image is adopted. The quad-cell performance based on the Strehl ratio is compared using simulations against the Cramer-Rao bound, an information theoretic or statistical limit, and a polynomial approximation. The effects of quad-cell modulation, its relationship to extended objects, and the effect on performance are also examined briefly. In the Shack-Hartmann and pyramid wavefront sensor, a strong duality in the imaging and aperture planes exists, allowing for comparison of the performance of the two wavefront sensors. Both sensors subdivide the input wavefront into smaller regions, and measure the local slope. They are equivalent in every way except for the order in which the subdivision and slope measurements were carried out. We show that this crucial difference leads to a theoretically higher performance from the pyramid wavefront sensor. We also presented simulations showing the trade-off between sensor precision and resolution. The geometric wavefront sensor can be considered to be an improved curvature wavefront sensor as it uses a more accurate algorithm based on geometric optics to estimate the wavefront. The algorithm is relatively new and has not found application in operating adaptive optics systems. Further analysis of the noise propagation in the algorithm, sensor resolution, and precision is presented. We also made some observations on the implementation of the geometric wavefront sensor based on image recovery through projections.

The advent of highly-coherent x-ray light sources, such as those now available world-wide in modern third-generation synchrotrons and increasingly available in free-electron lasers, is driving the need for improved analytical and experimental techniques which exploit the coherency of the generated light. As the light illuminating a sample approaches full coherence, a simple Fourier transform describes the diffraction pattern generated by the scattered light in the far field; because the Fourier transform of an object is unique, coherent scattering can directly probe local structure in the scattering object instead of bulk properties. In this dissertation, we exploit the coherence of Advanced Light Source beamline 12.0.2 to build three types of novel coherent scattering microscopes. First, we extend the techniques of coherent diffractive imaging and Fourier transform holography, which uses iterative computational methods to invert oversampled coherent speckle patterns, into reflection geometry. This proof-of-principle experiment demonstrates a method by which reflection Bragg peaks, such as those from the orbitally-ordered phase of complex metal oxides, might eventually be imaged. Second, we apply a similar imaging method to the x-ray beam itself to directly image the mutual coherence function with only a single diffraction pattern. This technique supersedes the double-slit experiments commonly seen in the scattering literature to measure the mutual intensity function by using a set of apertures which effectively contains all possible double slit geometries. Third, we show how to evaluate the speckle patterns taken from a labyrinthine domain pattern for "hidden" rotational symmetries. For this measurement, we modify the iterative algorithms used to invert speckle patterns to generate a large number of domain configurations with the same incoherent scattering profile as the candidate pattern and then use these simulations as the basis for a statistical inference of the degree of ordering in the domain configuration. We propose extending this measurement to position-resolved speckle patterns, creating a symmetry-sensitive microscope. The three new techniques described herein may be employed at current and future light sources.

Ce manuscrit de thèse traite de l’étude de verres ophtalmiques microstructurés et plus particulièrement pixellisés, ces derniers pouvant présenter un intérêt particulier en optique active pour la correction de la presbytie. Une étude théorique est proposée, permettant d’analyser les performances optiques d’une lentille pixellisée en termes de transport d’image et d’identifier les paramètres qui ont un impact direct sur ces performances. Après validation expérimentale des résultats obtenus, nous constatons puis expliquons l’effet sur l’observation d’une scène de l’excentrement de l’œil par rapport à la fonction de phase du verre. Nous étudions l’effet du repliement de phase inhérent aux limites des technologies de fabrication, qui vient ajouter un chromatisme axial aux défauts visuels engendrés par la pixellisation. Nous nous intéressons ensuite aux applications possibles de la pixellisation en optique passive. Nous prouvons que pour une application visée, des lentilles binaires non pixellisées, dont nous optimisons la qualité optique, conduisent à de meilleurs résultats que les lentilles pixellisées. L’impact sur l’acuité visuelle des phénomènes diffractifs parasites induits par la pixellisation est évalué au moyen d’un banc de mesure utilisant la simulation de certaines images telles qu’elles seraient vues au travers de verres ophtalmiques pixellisés. Enfin, nous menons une étude de l’aspect esthétique d’un verre pixellisé vu par un observateur externe, à partir de modèles de calcul hybrides mêlant optique géométrique et optique de Fourier. / This thesis investigates microstructured and more particularly pixelated ophthalmic glasses, the latter raising some hope for the active correction of presbyopia. A theoretical study is developed for the analysis of the optical performances of a pixelated lens in terms of image transport and leads to the identification of the parameters which have an impact on these performances. After experimental validation of the results obtained, we note and then explain the effect on the observation of a scene of eye displacement with respect to the optical function of the eyeglass. We study the effect of phase wrapping, which is inherent in the limits of the technologies implied in the manufacturing process and adds an axial chromatism effect to the visual defects generated by pixelation. We are also interested in the potential applications of pixelation in the field of passive optics. We prove that for a given application, non pixelated binary lenses, the optical quality of which we optimize, lead to better results than pixelated lenses. The impact on visual acuity of the parasitic diffractive phenomena induced by pixelation is evaluated with an optical bench using the simulation of test images seen through pixelated lenses. Finally, we study the aesthetic aspect of a pixelated component as seen by an external observer, using hybrid calculation models based on both geometrical and Fourier optics.

In this thesis, we analyze the simplest optical imaging system: a ball lens. The traditional method of using a geometric optics analysis on an optical system only gives the roughest qualitative solution due to the lack of consideration of wave properties. Therefore, for accurate quantitative results, we need to analyze said system with a complete wave theory approach. The reason that we chose a ball lens as the focus of this research is due to its spherical symmetry properties which allows us to rigorously investigate it with different analytic methods. We will apply geometric optics, Fourier optics, scalar wave optics, and electromagnetic optics methods to compute the point spread functions (PSF) of a ball lens under the assumption that the point source is isotropic. We will follow up by predicting the spot sizes that correspond to each mean. First, with geometric optics (GO), we apply the analytic ray tracing method to correlate the origins of light rays passing through the ball lens to their respective positions on the receptive end. We can then evaluate the energy distribution function by gathering the density of rays on image plane. Second, in the theory of Fourier optics (FO), to obtain the analytic formula of the point spread function, the integral kernel can be approximated as the Fresnel integral kernel by means of paraxial approximation. Compared to GO, the results from FO are superior due to the inclusion of wave characteristics. Furthermore, we consider scalar wave optics by directly solving the inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation which the scalar light field should satisfy. However, the light field is not assigned to an exact physical meaning in the theory of scalar wave optics, so we reasonably require boundary conditions where the light field function and its first derivative are continuous everywhere on the surface of ball lens. Finally, in the theory of electromagnetic optics (EMO), we consider the polarization of the point source, and the two kinds of Hertz vectors and , both of which satisfy inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation, and are derived from Maxwell¡¦s equations in spherical structures. In contrast with the scalar wave optics, the two Hertz vectors are defined concretely thus allowing us to assign exact boundary conditions on the interface. Then the fields corresponding to and are averaged as the final point spread function.

Atom-surface interactions are becoming an integral part of the field of atom optics. Here the role of van der Waals atom-surface interactions in atom wave diffraction and interferometry are investigated. In particular, it is shown that van der Waals interactions influence the intensity and phase of atomic diffraction patterns obtained from material gratings. As a result the atomic diffraction patterns are utilized to make an accurate determination of the interaction strength and verify the spatial variation of the atom-surface potential. A theory for describing the modified atom wave diffraction patterns is developed through an analogy with optical waves. An atom interferometer is used to directly measure the de Broglie wave phase shift induced by atom-surface interactions. More specifically, the phases of the zeroth, first, and second diffraction orders are measured. A proposal for using electromagnetic fields to modify the van der Waals interaction is put forth. Several of the important experimental components for observing such an effect are also demonstrated.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In the wool trade the mean diameter of wool is a primary indicator of wool quality. It is currently standard practice for a wool grower to send samples to a laboratory for classification before and after shearing. The devices used to make measurements on samples are often big and bulky and sensitive to the environment, thus they are not ideally suited for on site testing. A brief discussion of the industry is given with background information on existing devices as well as information about organic fibres in general. We test an experimental device which has the potential to be robust and compact based on the Fourier optical principle. Two initial designs are considered and the transmission design is further developed into a working system. The working system is evaluated in a sample measurement experiment. In our sample measurement experimentwe determine the mean diameter of a set of samples which has been analysed by an external testing body such that the measurements could be compared. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In diewol bedryfword die gemiddelde diameter vanwol as ’n primêre kwaliteitindeks gebruik. Dit is tans gebruiklik om wol monsters na ’n laboratorium te stuur vir klassifikasie voor en na die skape geskeer word. Die toestel wat gebruik word om die wol monsters te klassifiseer is geneig om groot, lomp en sensitief vir die omgewing te wees en is sodoende nie ideaal vir veld gebruik nie. ’n Kort uitleg van die industrie word gegee tesame met agtergrond inligting van bestaande toestelle asook agtergrond oor organiese vesels in die algemeen. Ons toets ’n eksperimentele toestel wat potensieel kompak en aanpasbaar kan wees en gebaseer is op die Fourier optiese prinsiep. Twee aanvanklike ontwerpe word oorweeg en eindelik word die transmissie ontwerp verder ontwikkel tot ’n werkende sisteem. Die sisteem word geëvalueer in ’n monster meting eksperiment. In die monster meting eksperiment bepaal ons die gemiddelde diameter van ’n stel monsters waarvan die gemiddelde diameter deur ’n eksterne liggaam bepaal is om sodoende die metings te kan vergelyk.

The miniaturization of optical systems has been a longstanding interest for physicists. By facilitating the design of smaller optical systems, we can improve their versatility and cost-effectiveness. This aim applies to macroscopic imaging systems, technologies that implicitly image, and micrometer-scale optics. Parallel to this, quantum optical devices have also seen rapid developments. Notably, the need for new quantum communications and quantum imaging devices has recently risen. The thesis outlines advancements in both of these areas and, in many ways, bridges gaps between them. It discusses the development of optics that compress free space, the design of holographic optical elements, and the generation of entangled photon states in thin-film sources. First, we describe an optic designed to miniaturize free space, termed the spaceplate. Spaceplates achieve the propagation of light for a distance greater than their thickness.Therefore, they compress optical space, reducing the required distance between optical elements in an imaging system. In this thesis, we describe a spaceplate based on conventional optics in a 4-f arrangement, mimicking the transfer function of free space in a thinner system - we term this device a three-lens spaceplate. It is broadband, polarization-independent, and achieves meter-scale space compression. We experimentally measure compression ratios up to 15.6, replacing up to 4.4 meters of free space, three orders of magnitude greater than previous spaceplates. We demonstrate that three-lens spaceplates reduce the length of a full-color imaging system, albeit with reductions in resolution and contrast. We also present theoretical limits on the numerical aperture and the compression ratio. Our design presents a simple, accessible, cost-effective method for optically compressing large volumes of space. Second, we discuss the design of holographic optical elements. Holograms are extraordinarily versatile optics. They have many applications, including interferometry, spectrometry, data storage, optical filtration, and sensing. We can design various optical elements such as filters, lenses, beam splitters, and solar concentrators by tailoring the phase response of a hologram. In this thesis, we describe the nature and function of holograms, and we experimentally characterize holography in lithium niobate and photopolymers. Using this characterization, we assess the limitations of different holographic analysis methods. Further, we describe novel holographic optical elements like the holographic spaceplate - a holographic optic element whose phase response mimics free space. Lastly, this thesis outlines the production of entangled photon pairs, or biphotons, via non-phase-matched spontaneous parametric down-conversion in micrometer- and nanometer-scale devices. By producing biphotons in micrometer-scale crystals rather than in bulk, as is done traditionally, we are allowed to ignore phase matching. These devices produce broadband emission in both angle and frequency not seen in phase-matched bulk sources. We measure entangled biphotons produced via spontaneous parametric down-conversion in gallium arsenide (111) and lithium niobate - both undoped and iron-doped. Lastly, we outline and present initial experiments towards a holographic spontaneous parametric down-conversion optic that combines photon production and mode sorting - an optic of cascaded miniaturization.

No description available.

Um sistema multi-feixe de pinças ópticas baseado na técnica de contraste de fase da ordem zero pode apresentar vantagens significativas sobre sistemas mecanicamente complexos e sensíveis ao alinhamento, e sobre tecnologias que, apesar de serem similares, requerem a customização de componentes ópticos. Porém, ao nosso conhecimento, este sistema até agora não tem sido implementado experimentalmente. Neste trabalho tem-se desenvolvido, como prova de princípio, o primeiro sistema baseado na técnica de contraste de fase da ordem zero gerador de múltiplas pinças ópticas. Esta técnica da óptica de Fourier utiliza conceitos do contraste de fase de Zernike e técnicas de codificação de dois pixels para gerar padrões de intensidade no plano da imagem que são diretamente relacionados a distribuições de fase no plano de entrada do sistema, o qual é formado por um modulador espacial de luz (SLM). Esta dissertação de mestrado descreve detalhadamente os passos tomados com o propósito de utilizar os campos estruturados de luz gerados pelo sistema de contraste de fase da ordem zero para aprisionar esferas de 2 µm de diâmetro de sílica fundida. Neste trabalho apresentamos os fundamentos teóricos do aprisionamento óptico e da técnica de contraste de fase da ordem zero, seguidos pela implementação de experimentos independentes em cada modalidade, e finalmente apresentamos a integração de ambos os sistemas dentro um sistema único de pinças ópticas multi-feixe. Apesar da baixa eficiência óptica do sistema, foi possível implementar um sistema de pinças ópticas duplas. Finalizamos o nosso trabalho na discussão detalhada das limitações do nosso arranjo óptico e comentamos sobre potenciais melhorias para aumentar a rigidez das pinças ópticas e a qualidade geral do sistema. / A multi-beam optical trapping system based on the zero order phase contrast technique may offer significant advantages over mechanically-complex, alignment-sensitive optical trapping systems, and over technologies that, though similar, require the customization of optics components. However, to our knowledge, such a system has not been yet implemented experimentally. We have developed, as a proof of principle, what we think is the first system based on the zero order phase contrast technique to successfully generate multiple optical traps. This Fourier optics technique makes use of existing concepts of Zernike phase contrast and two-pixel encoding techniques to generate intensity patterns in the image plane that are directly related to phase distributions in the input plane, which is comprised by a spatial light modulator (SLM). This master\'s dissertation describes in detail the steps taken towards using the structured light fields generated by a zero order phase contrast system to trap 2 µm diameter fused silica beads. We present the theoretical foundations of optical trapping and the zero order phase contrast technique, followed by the implementation of independent laboratory experiments in each modality, and finally integrate both systems into a single optical setup for multi-beam trapping. In spite of the low optical efficiency of the system, we were able to implement dual optical traps. We finalize by discussing in detail the limitations of our experimental setup in and comment on potential improvements to increase the stiffness of the optical traps and the overall quality of the system.