Over thousands of years, the eastern part of the Mediterranean has developed ways to supply and manage its water resources. The most important evidence of this is the water networks that are distributed in the area. Case studies involving a literature review, fieldwork, sample collection and analysis were conducted that focused on two areas in the West Bank: Nablus city and the northern part of Jordan Valley. These locations were chosen because Nablus city and its vicinity have many of Roman tunnels and aqueducts while the Jordan Valley has many watermills. This study aims to examine the changes in water quality over time in various ways; in an attempt to explain environmental degradation, to understand archeological aspects relating to the water management system, and to piece together what sustained the past environmental development. Throughout centuries carbonate deposits have accumulated along the sidewalls of the water system, containing and archiving geochemical and hydraulic information. These carbonate deposits were sampled from the walls of tunnels together with water samples from the tunnel and surrounding springs in the area. In addition, carbonate sinter has accumulated at the outlet of the watermill on the water shaft. This sinter was also sampled along with water samples from the springs and the water in the Wadi in the area. Water and carbonate samples were analyzed. Water analysis included major cations and anions, trace elements, rare earth elements, 18O/16O isotope ratio, and 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratio. Results indicate the presence of different underground water bodies and Sr resources. Furthermore, thin sections were made from the carbonate samples for SEM–EDX analyses and microscopic investigations. The microscope analysis showed that the distribution of minerals precipitated differs within one sample. Likewise, SEM–EDX results show a variation in element distribution along the growth axis. After finishing the analysis of water samples and thin sections, the layers of the carbonate samples were acidified and trace elements and rare earth elements were measured by means of ICP–MS. Then selected layers were prepared for isotope analyses (18O, 13C, and 87Sr/86Sr) and subsequently measured. The carbonate samples were dated using the U–Th method. Rare earth elements and trace elements measurements provide clear evidence that urbanization has an adverse effect on groundwater quality. Different groundwater bodies were identified by means of geochemical analysis. In the same way, the water sources used to feed the ancient water system were also identified. Through petrological and geochemical analysis, the sustainability of the watermill concept could be demonstrated. This study recommends a more controlled regulation of urbanization expansion. It will only be possible to continue living in this region with sufficient amounts of groundwater and innovative techniques for water supply and management that are environmentally sustainable, as it used to be centuries ago.:Declaration V Acknowledgment VI Abstract VIII List of Figures X List of Tables XVI List of Abbreviations XVII Terms and definitions XIX 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Structure of the thesis 1 1.2 General information, background 2 1.2.1 Spiritual value of water in Palestine 2 1.2.2 Water resources and management condition in Palestine 3 1.2.3 Water crisis in Palestine 4 1.3 Motivation 5 1.4 Hypothesis 6 1.5 Location of study area 6 1.5.1 Description of geology and hydrogeology of the study area 8 1.5.2 Climate 13 2. Literature review 18 2.1 Research history of aqueducts 18 2.2 Aqueducts in Palestine 18 2.2.1 Agricultural aqueducts (related to watermills) in Palestine 20 2.3 Utilization of springs in Palestine 21 2.3.1 Ancient water system in Nablus–Sebestia 22 2.4 Carbonate sinter accumulation in aqueducts and artificial water network 24 2.4.1 Research history of secondary carbonate sinter 26 2.4.2 Growth mechanism of secondary carbonate 29 2.4.3 Carbonate sinter analysis 30 3. Methodology 33 3.1 Literature review 33 3.2 Fieldwork 34 3.3 Sampling and analysis 37 3.3.1 Water samples: 37 3.3.2 Carbonate samples 38 3.3.3 U–Th series dating 41 3.4 Software used 43 3.5 Challenges 43 4. Results and discussion (Nablus area) 45 4.1 Ancient water system description 45 4.2 Water sample results and discussion 54 4.2.1 Stable isotope 59 4.2.2 Strontium isotope analysis (87Sr/86Sr) 60 4.2.3 Saturation index 62 4.2.4 Discussion 63 4.3 Carbonate analysis (host rock) 64 4.4 Aqueduct building material 65 4.5 Secondary carbonate analysis 66 4.5.1 Ras Al Ein location (S-2) 66 4.5.2 Ijnisinya location (S-9) 72 4.5.3 Harun Location (S-8) 79 4.5.4 Water tunnel Location (A-1) 86 4.5.5 Water aqueduct Location (A-4) 99 4.6 Discussion 101 4.6.1 Is urbanization a source of groundwater quality degradation? 101 4.6.3 Paleoclimate calculations 105 5. Results and discussion (Al Malih area) 107 5.1 Water system description 107 5.2 Geochemical results (water) 108 5.3 Geochemical results (Carbonate) 111 5.3 Sustainability of watermills 113 6. Conclusions and recommendation 115 6.1 Conclusions 115 6.2 Recommendations 116 6.2.1 Recommendation for further research 116 6.2.2 Recommendation for policy makers 116 References 118

Wetland sites provide important knowledge about settlement history and historical infrastructure in the form of buried archaeological features. However, the subsurface is difficult to access, e.g. due to high groundwater levels or unstable sediments, making archaeological excavation difficult and the conservation of recovered artefacts, e.g. timbers, is expensive. In addition, one of the aims of heritage conservation is to disturb structures in such contexts as little as possible as part of preserving. Therefore, alternative non- and minimal-invasive methods, e.g. geophysical prospection and vibra-coring, are used for exploration. However, geophysical surveys face the issue of inaccurate depth values and rely on sufficient contrasts in the measured physical parameters. Vibra-coring allows direct access to the sediments, but again gives inaccurate depth values due to high compaction rates. For this reason, the implementation of alternative methods and the development of new methodical approaches to wetland site exploration are of extraordinary importance. One such wetland site is the Fossa Carolina, an early medieval canal that today is partially buried. Located in Southern Germany next to Treuchtlingen, south of Nuremberg, the canal was intended at the time to provide a navigable link between the Rhine-Main and Danube basins by bridging the European watershed. In the research for this thesis, direct push sensing was used as an alternative exploration technique to explore the site. In this method, various probes are pushed into the unconsolidated subsoil and the parameters are measured in situ with high depth accuracy. (i) Therefore, the colour logging tool (CLT) and the electrical conductivity (EC) probe were applied. (ii) In order to record archaeological structures and features, the soundings were distributed closely along a transect using an adaptive exploration strategy, thus recording a high-resolution cross-section of the structure. (iii) These prospections were integrated into a spatial-hierarchical multi-method approach by combining direct push sensing with geophysical survey and vibra-coring, inter alia. (iv) Thus, a deeply buried section of the Fossa Carolina (West-East Section) was explored, demonstrating at least one-way navigability and revealing the backfill stratigraphy. (v) Furthermore, the approach used helped to clarify the nature of conspicuous magnetic anomalies in the area adjacent to the canal. In the Northern and North-Eastern Sections, magnetic anomalies provided evidence of water-supplying structures. The exploration of these structures revealed an Early Holocene structure in the North-Eastern Section and a historic gravel road in the Northern Section. (vi) Additionally, a strong magnetic anomaly with a course parallel to the canal in the Northern Section could be temporally and stratigraphically associated with the construction of the canal. Thus, for the first time, a larger remnant of the construction process outside the canal could be identified, even if the origin could not be conclusively clarified. (vii) In a broader context, the in situ direct push cross-sections were integrated into a 3D modelling approach for the entire Fossa Carolina to quantify the excavation volume. (viii) The methodological approach was successfully applied to a wetland site at Pestenacker in Southern Germany to collect evidence for Holocene floodplain dynamics in the Late Neolithic settlement. Finally, the thesis demonstrates the enormous methodological potential of direct push sensing for the exploration of buried archaeological sites. In particular, the colour logging tool is proving to be extremely effective, further enhanced by the intelligent combination in multi-method approaches. This is confirmed by the significant results obtained at Fossa Carolina that shed new light on the canal{'}s navigability, water supply, and construction structure. Overall, this thesis demonstrates the valuable contribution that direct push methods can make to geoarchaeological research. It both introduces a new methodological approach and provides new empirical evidence concerning the construction of an example of early medieval infrastructure.:Preface Acknowledgements Abstract Kurzfassung Contents List of Figures List of Tables Acronyms and Symbols 1 Introduction 1.1 Geoarchaeological exploration in wetlands: possibilities and challenges 1.1.1 Proven exploration methods 1.1.2 Direct push sensing 1.1.3 Exploration strategies 1.2 The study site 1.2.1 The Fossa Carolina - State of the art in brief 1.2.2 Natural settings 1.3 Aims of the thesis 2 Published Studies 2.1 Minimalinvasive Direct-push-Erkundung in der Feuchtboden(geo)archäologie am Beispiel des Karlsgrabens (Fossa Carolina) 2.2 Non-invasive prospection techniques and direct push sensing as high-resolution validation tools in wetland geoarchaeology – Artificial water supply at a Carolingian canal in South Germany? 2.3 High-Resolution Direct Push Sensing in Wetland Geoarchaeology—First Traces of Off-Site Construction Activities at the Fossa Carolina 2.4 3D-Modelling of Charlemagne’s Summit Canal (Southern Germany)—Merging Remote Sensing and Geoarchaeological Subsurface Data 2.5 A hydrological tipping point and onset of Neolithic wetland occupation in Pestenacker (Lech catchment, S Germany) 3 Discussion 3.1 Direct push sensing for wetland exploration 3.1.1 High-resolution direct push sensing cross-sections 3.1.2 Integration and comparison of direct push sensing in a spatially hierarchical multi-method approach 3.1.3 Direct push colour logging tool (CLT) data for ground truthing 3.1.4 Perspectives on direct push sensing in geoarchaeology 3.2 Results of the exploration of the Fossa Carolina 3.2.1 Chronostratigraphic recording in the West-East and Northern Sections 3.2.2 Characteristics of the canal construction in the West-East and Northern Sections 3.2.3 Validation of off-canal structures in the Northern and North-Eastern Sections 3.2.4 Water supply for the Fossa Carolina 3.2.5 Pending issues in the study of the Fossa Carolina 4 Conclusion References Appendix A1 - Author publications A2 - Article contribution A3 - Declaration of originality A4 - Bibliographic description / Feuchtgebiete bergen durch begrabene archäologische Strukturen wichtige Erkenntnisse zur Siedlungsgeschichte und historischen Infrastruktur. Schwierige Untergrundverhältnisse, z. B. durch hohen Grundwasserspiegel oder instabile Sedimente, erschweren jedoch archäologische Ausgrabungen und die Konservierung der geborgenen Artefakte, z. B. Hölzer, verursacht hohe Kosten. Darüber hinaus ist ein Ziel der Bodendenkmalpflege, archäologische Strukturen so wenig wie möglich zu beeinträchtigen und sie in situ zu erhalten. Daher werden alternative nicht- und minimal-invasive Methoden, z. B. geophysikalische Prospektionen und Rammkernsondierungen, zur Exploration eingesetzt. Bei geophysikalischen Untersuchungen ergeben sich jedoch Schwierigkeiten durch ungenaue Tiefenwerte und die Methoden sind auf ausreichende Kontraste der gemessenen physikalischen Parameter angewiesen. Rammkernsondierungen ermöglichen einen direkten Zugriff auf die Sedimente, erzeugen jedoch wiederum ungenaue Tiefenwerte durch hohe Kompaktionsraten. Aus diesem Grund sind die Implementierung alternativer Methoden und die Entwicklung neuer methodischer Ansätze für die Erforschung von Feuchtgebietsstandorten von herausragender Bedeutung. Die Fossa Carolina, ein frühmittelalterlicher, heute teilweise verschütteter Kanal, ist ein solcher Standort. Das Bauwerk befindet sich in Süddeutschland in der Nähe von Treuchtlingen, südlich von Nürnberg und sollte eine schiffbare Verbindung zwischen dem Rhein-Main- und dem Donaueinzugsgebiet herstellen, indem es die europäische Hauptwasserscheide überbrückte. Zur Erkundung des Bauwerks wurde als Alternative die in situ Direct-Push-Methode eingesetzt. Bei dieser Methode werden verschiedene Sonden in den unkonsolidierten Untergrund gedrückt und die Parameter in situ tiefengenau gemessen. (i) Dabei kamen die Farbsonde, engl. colour logging tool (CLT), und die Sonde zur Messung der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit, engl. electrical conductivity (EC) probe, zum Einsatz. (ii) Zur Erfassung archäologischer Strukturen und Befunde wurden die Sondierungen mit einer adaptiven Erkundungsstrategie auf einem Transekt engmaschig verteilt und somit ein hochaufgelöster Querschnitt des Bauwerks erfasst. (iii) Darüber hinaus wurden diese Prospektionen in einen räumlich-hierarchischen Multimethodenansatz integriert, indem in situ Direct-Push-Sondierungen mit z. B. geophysikalischen Erkundungen und Rammkernsondierungen kombiniert wurden. Somit wurde (iv) ein tiefliegender, begrabener Abschnitt der Fossa Carolina im West-Ost-Bereich erkundet, dort die Schiffbarkeit für mindestens eine Schiffsbreite nachgewiesen und die Sedimentstratigraphie der Verfüllung beschrieben. Weiterhin wurde der Ansatz genutzt, um magnetische Anomalien im Umfeld des Kanals zu prospektieren. (v) Im nördlichen und nordöstlichen Bereich lieferten magnetische Anomalien Hinweise auf wasserzuführende Bauwerke im Untergrund. Die Erkundung ergab eine frühholozäne Struktur im nordöstlichen Bereich und eine historische Schotterstraße im nördlichen Bereich. (vi) Weiterhin konnte eine starke magnetische Anomalie mit parallelem Verlauf zum Kanal im nördlichen Bereich zeitlich und stratigraphisch dem Bauwerk zugeordnet werden. Somit konnte zum ersten Mal eine größere Spur des Baus außerhalb des Kanals nachgewiesen werden, auch wenn die Entstehung nicht abschließend geklärt werden konnte. (vii) Im übergeordneten Kontext konnten die Daten der in situ Direct-Push-Transekte in einen 3D-Modellierungsansatz für die gesamte Fossa Carolina zur Quantifizierung des Aushubs integriert werden. (viii) Neben der Erforschung der Fossa Carolina wurde der methodische Ansatz zusätzlich an einem Feuchtgebietsstandort bei Pestenacker in Süddeutschland angewendet, um Informationen über die holozäne Auendynamik an der spätneolithischen Siedlung zu gewinnen. Schlussendlich belegt die Dissertation das enorme methodische Potential der in situ Direct-Push-Erkundungen für die Prospektion von Bodendenkmälern. Dabei erweist sich insbesondere die Farbsonde als äußerst wirkungsvoll, was durch die gezielte Kombination in multi-methodischen Ansätzen noch verstärkt wird. Dies wird durch die aussagekräftigen Ergebnisse an der Fossa Carolina belegt, mit deren Hilfe insbesondere neue Erkenntnisse zur Schiffbarkeit, Wasserzuführung und Baustruktur gewonnen werden konnten. Insgesamt demonstriert diese Dissertation den wertvollen Beitrag, den in situ Direct-Push-Methoden zur geoarchäologischen Forschung leisten können. Sie präsentiert sowohl einen neuen methodischen Ansatz als auch neue empirische Erkenntnisse zu einem frühmittelalterlichen Bauwerk.:Preface Acknowledgements Abstract Kurzfassung Contents List of Figures List of Tables Acronyms and Symbols 1 Introduction 1.1 Geoarchaeological exploration in wetlands: possibilities and challenges 1.1.1 Proven exploration methods 1.1.2 Direct push sensing 1.1.3 Exploration strategies 1.2 The study site 1.2.1 The Fossa Carolina - State of the art in brief 1.2.2 Natural settings 1.3 Aims of the thesis 2 Published Studies 2.1 Minimalinvasive Direct-push-Erkundung in der Feuchtboden(geo)archäologie am Beispiel des Karlsgrabens (Fossa Carolina) 2.2 Non-invasive prospection techniques and direct push sensing as high-resolution validation tools in wetland geoarchaeology – Artificial water supply at a Carolingian canal in South Germany? 2.3 High-Resolution Direct Push Sensing in Wetland Geoarchaeology—First Traces of Off-Site Construction Activities at the Fossa Carolina 2.4 3D-Modelling of Charlemagne’s Summit Canal (Southern Germany)—Merging Remote Sensing and Geoarchaeological Subsurface Data 2.5 A hydrological tipping point and onset of Neolithic wetland occupation in Pestenacker (Lech catchment, S Germany) 3 Discussion 3.1 Direct push sensing for wetland exploration 3.1.1 High-resolution direct push sensing cross-sections 3.1.2 Integration and comparison of direct push sensing in a spatially hierarchical multi-method approach 3.1.3 Direct push colour logging tool (CLT) data for ground truthing 3.1.4 Perspectives on direct push sensing in geoarchaeology 3.2 Results of the exploration of the Fossa Carolina 3.2.1 Chronostratigraphic recording in the West-East and Northern Sections 3.2.2 Characteristics of the canal construction in the West-East and Northern Sections 3.2.3 Validation of off-canal structures in the Northern and North-Eastern Sections 3.2.4 Water supply for the Fossa Carolina 3.2.5 Pending issues in the study of the Fossa Carolina 4 Conclusion References Appendix A1 - Author publications A2 - Article contribution A3 - Declaration of originality A4 - Bibliographic description

Deep anthropogenic topsoils – those augmented through long-term additions of mineral bulk among fertilising agents – retain in both their physical and chemical make-up significant indicators for cultural activity. This project researched the geographical distribution and historical context of deep anthropogenic topsoils in Scotland and the Isles, and used this information to investigate the impact of current land cover upon the cultural information they retain. In so doing, the project investigated the potential for conservation of this significant cultural resource. A review of the historical information available on agricultural and manuring practices for Scotland identified several factors likely to affect deep topsoil distribution and frequency. These were: the availability of bulk manures to Scottish farmers, the significance of the seaweed resource in determining fertiliser strategies in coastal areas, and the influence of urban settlement and associated patterns of domestic and industrial waste disposal on the location of deep topsoils. Evidence for widespread deep topsoil development was limited. The primary data source used – the First Statistical Account of Scotland – was manipulated into a spatial database in ArcView GIS, to which geographical data from the Soil Survey of Scotland and national archaeological survey databases were added. This was used to devise a survey programme aiming both to investigate the potential factors affecting soil development listed above, and to locate deep topsoil sites for analysis. Three sites were identified with deep topsoils under different cover types (woodland, arable and pasture). The urban-influenced context of two of these highlighted the significance of urban settlement to the location of Scottish deep topsoils. Analysis of pH, organic matter, and total phosphorus content showed a correlation between raised organic matter and a corresponding increase in phosphorus content in soils under permanent vegetation. By contrast, soils under arable cultivation showed no such rise. This was attributed to the action of cropping in removing modern organic inputs prior to down-profile cycling. The potential for pasture and woodland cover to affect relict soil signatures was therefore observed. Thin section analysis aimed to both provide micromorphological characterisation of the three deep topsoil sites and investigate the effect of modern land cover on micromorphological indicators. Distinctive differences in micromorphological character were observed between the rural and urban deep topsoils, with the latter showing a strong focus on carbonised fuel residues and industrial wastes. All sites showed a highly individual micromorphological character, reflective of localised fertilising systems. There was no correlation between land cover type and survival of material indictors for anthropogenic activity, with soil cultural indicators surviving well, particularly those characteristic of urban-influenced topsoils. Suggestions for preservation strategies for this potentially rare and highly localised cultural resource included the incorporation of deep anthropogenic topsoil conservation into current government policy relating to care of the rural historic environment, and the improvement of data on the resource through ongoing survey and excavation.