<p><strong>Objective</strong><em>:</em> Estimation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is an important tool in the diagnosis and management of chronic kidney disease. Today creatinine is the most frequently used marker for kidney function though several studies indicate that cystatin C is a superior marker. The purpose of this study was to validate Abbott Diagnostics turbidimetric cystatin C assay and enzymatic creatinine assay.</p><p><strong>Methods</strong><em>:</em> The validation was performed by studies of CV for the two methods and correlations between the two and other available methods for assessing GFR. The stability of cystatin C at room temperature was also evaluated.</p><p><strong>Results</strong><em>: </em>Both methods showed good precision. The Abbott cystatin C assay generally gave lower values and thereby higher estimated GFRs than the correlated Gentian method. The Abbott enzymatic creatinine assay gave higher values than the correlated Jaffe method. Those results are generally unexpected, but in this study the cause is an automatically applied negative intercept used together with the Jaffe method. Cystatin C showed high stability when stored at room temperature.</p><p><strong>Conclusions</strong><em>:</em> Estimated GFRs tend to differ depending on the choice of method for analyzing cystatin C or creatinine and this study gives an overview of the range of variation. The study also enlightens the need for an international calibrator for the cystatin C methods presented by different manufacturers.</p>

Objective: Estimation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is an important tool in the diagnosis and management of chronic kidney disease. Today creatinine is the most frequently used marker for kidney function though several studies indicate that cystatin C is a superior marker. The purpose of this study was to validate Abbott Diagnostics turbidimetric cystatin C assay and enzymatic creatinine assay. Methods: The validation was performed by studies of CV for the two methods and correlations between the two and other available methods for assessing GFR. The stability of cystatin C at room temperature was also evaluated. Results: Both methods showed good precision. The Abbott cystatin C assay generally gave lower values and thereby higher estimated GFRs than the correlated Gentian method. The Abbott enzymatic creatinine assay gave higher values than the correlated Jaffe method. Those results are generally unexpected, but in this study the cause is an automatically applied negative intercept used together with the Jaffe method. Cystatin C showed high stability when stored at room temperature. Conclusions: Estimated GFRs tend to differ depending on the choice of method for analyzing cystatin C or creatinine and this study gives an overview of the range of variation. The study also enlightens the need for an international calibrator for the cystatin C methods presented by different manufacturers.

In setting the AMDR for protein at 10-35% of daily energy, the Institute of Medicine acknowledged a lack of data regarding the safety of long-term intakes. The current study assessed the impact of chronic (17 months) protein consumption at the upper end of the AMDR on renal function, histology, and inflammation. Using plant and animal whole protein sources, female Sprague-Dawley rats (70 days old; n=8-11 at 4, 8, 12, or 17 mo.) were randomized to either a normal (NP; 15% of energy) or high protein (HP; 35% of energy) diet. Egg albumen and skim milk replaced carbohydrates in the HP diet. Diets were balanced for energy, fat, vitamins and minerals, and offered ad libitum. Renal function was analyzed by creatinine clearance and urinary protein levels. Glomerular hypertrophy, glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis were assessed on kidney sections. Kidney disease progression was determined by the measurement of transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1) and renal inflammation by the measurement of chemokines monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and regulated upon activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES). Rats consuming the HP compared to NP diet had ~17% higher kidney weights (P<0.0001) and ~4.8 times higher proteinuria (P<0.0001). There was a trend towards higher creatinine clearance with HP (P=0.055). Consistent with this, HP compared to NP rats had ~22% larger glomeruli (P<0.0001) and ~33% more glomerulosclerosis (P=0.0003). The HP diet had no significant effect on tubulointerstitial fibrosis and renal TGF-β1 levels and did not result in higher renal levels of MCP-1 and RANTES. In fact, per mg renal protein, HP rats had ~16% lower MCP-1 (P<0.0001) and ~34% lower levels of RANTES (P<0.0001) than NP. The absence of an increase in cytokine levels may be a reflection of the moderate changes in renal pathology observed in rats offered HP diets. These data in normal female rats suggest that protein intakes at the upper end of the AMDR are detrimental to kidney health in the long-term. While modest, this may have implications for individuals whose kidney function is compromised, especially given the prevalence of those unaware of their kidney disease within North America. / October 2007

Η πορεία μιας οξείας σπειραματικής νόσου προς τη χρόνια νεφρική ανεπάρκεια χαρακτηρίζεται από φλεγμονώδεις διεργασίες που εντοπίζονται αρχικά στο σπείραμα, εν συνεχεία στον ενδιάμεσο χώρο, στα ουροφόρα σωληνάρια και τέλος στα νεφρικά αγγεία. Το πρωταρχικό αίτιο για την έναρξη των διεργασιών αυτών είναι η εναπόθεση ανοσοσυμπλεγμάτων στην περιοχή του σπειράματος και η ενεργοποίηση αντιδράσεων που οδηγούν τελικά στην εμφάνιση σπειραματικής σκλήρυνσης, ίνωσης του διαμέσου ιστού και ατροφίας των ουροφόρων σωληναρίων. Οι διεργασίες αυτές φαίνεται να πυροδοτούνται από κυτταροκίνες, όπως είναι οι ιντερλευκίνες (IL-1, IL-2, IL-6) και να εξελίσσονται περαιτέρω κάτω από την επίδραση αυξητικών παραγόντων, όπως είναι ο Transforming Growth Factor (TGF-β1), Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) και Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF-1). Πέραν των διεργασιών όμως αυτών, σημαντικό ρόλο στην ολοκλήρωση της καταστροφής του νεφρώνα, φαίνεται να διαδραματίζει ο ρυθμός απόπτωσης των κυττάρων των ουροφόρων σωληναρίων. Πράγματι η απόπτωση αποτελεί ένα σημαντικό μηχανισμό αποικοδόμησης των κυττάρων που σε συνεργασία με την αναγέννησή τους συμβάλλει στη σταθερότητα όλων των βιολογικών συστημάτων (ομοιόσταση). Ο ρυθμός της απόπτωσης των κυττάρων βρίσκεται σε μια σταθερή σχέση με τον ρυθμό αναγέννησης, έτσι ώστε κάθε βιολογικό σύστημα να παραμένει δομικά και λειτουργικά σταθερό. Οι πρωτεΐνες bax και bcl-2 έχουν αποδειχθεί αξιόπιστοι δείκτες της αποπτωτικής διαδικασίας. Η παρούσα μελέτη έχει σαν στόχο να εξετάσει ποιοτικά και ποσοτικά τη συμμετοχή των αυξητικών παραγόντων (TGF-β1, EGF, IGF-1) και των δεικτών της κυτταρικής απόπτωσης (πρωτεΐνες bax και bcl-2) σε ασθενείς με σπειραματικές βλάβες, παρουσία ιστολογικών αλλοιώσεων διαφορετικής βαρύτητας και κατ’ επέκταση διαταραχή της λειτουργίας του νεφρού. Συμπεριελήφθησαν 76 ασθενείς (44 άνδρες και 32 γυναίκες) στους οποίους, με βάση τα ιστολογικά ευρήματα στις βιοψίες του νεφρικού ιστού, ετέθησαν οι διαγνώσεις: ιδιοπαθής μεμβρανώδης σπειραματονεφρίτιδα (n=26), IgA νεφροπάθεια (n=15), νόσος ελαχίστων αλλοιώσεων (n=12), ταχέως εξελισσόμενη σπειραματονεφρίτιδα (n=11), εστιακή σπειραματοσκλήρυνση (n=7) και νεφρίτιδα του λύκου (n=5). Η μέση χρονική διάρκεια παρακολούθησης των ασθενών ήταν 4 χρόνια. Το είδος και η βαρύτητα των δομικών αλλοιώσεων του νεφρικού ιστού συσχετίσθηκαν με την πορεία της νεφρικής λειτουργίας, αλλά και με παραμέτρους των φλεγμονωδών διεργασιών που προσδιορίσθηκαν ανοσοϊστοχημικά, όπως είναι οι αυξητικοί παράγοντες TGF-β1, EGF και IGF-1, οι μυοϊνοβλάστες (κύτταρα που συμμετέχουν στη διαδικασία ανάπτυξης της ίνωσης) και οι δείκτες της κυτταρικής απόπτωσης (πρωτεΐνες bax και bcl-2). Διαπιστώθηκε, λοιπόν, ότι σε ασθενείς με σπειραματική βλάβη η παρουσία των αυξητικών παραγόντων, των μυοϊνοβλαστών και των δεικτών κυτταρικής απόπτωσης στα σπειράματα, στο διάμεσο χώρο και στα ουροφόρα σωληνάρια είναι έντονη. Μάλιστα αυτή του αυξητικού παράγοντα TGF-β1 των μυοϊνοβλαστών και των πρωτεϊνών bax και bcl-2 είναι εντονότερη σε ασθενείς με σημαντικού βαθμού σπειραματική σκλήρυνση, ίνωση του διάμεσου ιστού και ατροφία των ουροφόρων σωληναρίων. Διαπιστώθηκε επίσης σημαντική συσχέτιση της έκφρασης των παραμέτρων αυτών με τη βαρύτητα των ιστολογικών αλλοιώσεων (r=0.444, p<0.05) και το βαθμό έκπτωσης της νεφρικής λειτουργίας (r= 0.454, p<0.05) ενώ αντίθετα δεν παρατηρήθηκε συσχέτιση με τον τύπο της σπειραματικής βλάβης. Αυξημένος ρυθμός κυτταρικής απόπτωσης παρατηρήθηκε στο νεφρικό ιστό ασθενών με έκπτωση της νεφρικής λειτουργίας κατά τη διάγνωση της νόσου. Συμπερασματικά διαπιστώθηκε ότι : 1) Σε όλους τους ασθενείς, ανεξάρτητα από τον τύπο της σπειραματονεφρίτιδας, εντοπίζονται ανοσοϊστοχημικά αυξητικοί παράγοντες στο σπείραμα, στο διάμεσο ιστό και στα ουροφόρα σωληνάρια και μυοϊνοβλάστες κυρίως στο διάμεσο χώρο. 2) Η ποσοτική έκφραση των αυξητικών παραγόντων και ιδιαίτερα του TGF-β1 φαίνεται να σχετίζεται άμεσα με το βαθμό έκπτωσης της νεφρικής λειτουργίας και τη βαρύτητα των ιστολογικών αλλοιώσεων. 3) Ο ρυθμός της κυτταρικής απόπτωσης είναι ανάλογος της βαρύτητας των ιστολογικών αλλοιώσεων και του βαθμού έκπτωσης της νεφρικής λειτουργίας. / The evolution of an acute glomerular injury towards chronic renal failure is characterized by an inflammatory process that is initially localized in the glomeruli and then in the tubulointerstitial area and vessels of the kidney. The deposition of immune complexes in the glomeruli is the main cause of this process that leads to the development of glomerular sclerosis, interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy. In this process various cytokines [interleukins (IL), (IL-1, IL-2, IL-6)] and growth factors [Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β), Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) and Insulin Growth Factor (IGF-1)] are involved. The phenomenon of cellular apoptosis is implicated in the development of renal scarring. Apoptosis represents the programmed cellular death that is in balance with the generation of cells. The rate of cellular apoptosis is responsible for the preservation of homeostasis in each organism. Various genes and proteins are involved in the regulation of apoptosis within kidney. Bax and bcl-2 proteins represent markers of the apoptotic process since bax is related to an enhanced apoptotic rate whereas bcl-2 provides a survival advantage to renal cells. The aim of this study is to investigate the expression of growth factors (TGF-β1, EGF, IGF-1) and apoptotic markers (bax and bcl-2 proteins) in the renal tissue of patients with various types of glomerulonephritis and to identify any correlation of this expression with the severity of histological injury and with the course of renal function. Seventy six patients (44 males and 32 females) were included in the study. The histological diagnoses were: idiopathic membranous nephropathy (n=26), IgA nephropathy (n=15), minimal changes disease (n=12), rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (n=11), focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (n=7) and lupus nephritis (n=5). The mean follow-up period was 4 years. The expression of growth factors, apoptotic markers and myofibroblasts (cells that are involved in the development of scarring) in the renal tissue was investigated by immunohistochemical technique and quantitated by morphometric analysis. In the renal tissue of patients with glomerulonephritis presence of growth factors, myofibroblasts and apoptotic markers was identified in the glomeruli and in the tubulointerstitial area. The expression of TGF-β1, myofibroblasts and bax, bcl-2 proteins was particularly severe in patients with glomerular sclerosis, interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy. The severity of this expression was related to the degree of histological damage (r=0.444, p<0.05) and that of renal impairment (r=0.454, p<0.05) whereas it was not related to the type of glomerulonephritis. In conclusion, it was found that: 1. Growth factors and myofibroblasts are localized in the glomeruli and in the tubulointerstitial area of patients with glomerulonephritis. 2. The severity of growth factors and in particular that of TGF-β1 expression is related to the degree of renal function impairment and to the severity of histological involvement. 3. The rate of cellular apoptosis in the kidney of patients with glomerulonephritis is also related to the severity of histological involvement and to the degree of renal function imparment.

Podocytes are specialized epithelial cells which wrap glomerular capillaries with numerous interdigitating foot processes (FP). Between adjacent FPs a unique junction, the slit diaphragm (SD), functions as the final blood filtration barrier. Actin organization is critical for maintaining FP structure and SD function, and the adaptor protein Nck can bind an intracellular SD component to couple it with actin regulators. Podocyte-specific deletion of Nck in mice results in proteinuria and FP effacement. To better understand FP remodelling, we have pursued a transgenic mouse model utilizing an inducible and reversible dominant negative Nck (DN-Nck) to prevent signalling to actin regulators, exclusively in podocytes. Effects of DN-Nck were first confirmed in vitro, and transgenic mice were then generated and induced to express DN-Nck. Despite obtaining several mice which exhibited a mild renal phenotype, transgene expression appeared to be lost in successive generations. Full in vivo analysis awaits generation of additional transgenic founders.

In setting the AMDR for protein at 10-35% of daily energy, the Institute of Medicine acknowledged a lack of data regarding the safety of long-term intakes. The current study assessed the impact of chronic (17 months) protein consumption at the upper end of the AMDR on renal function, histology, and inflammation. Using plant and animal whole protein sources, female Sprague-Dawley rats (70 days old; n=8-11 at 4, 8, 12, or 17 mo.) were randomized to either a normal (NP; 15% of energy) or high protein (HP; 35% of energy) diet. Egg albumen and skim milk replaced carbohydrates in the HP diet. Diets were balanced for energy, fat, vitamins and minerals, and offered ad libitum. Renal function was analyzed by creatinine clearance and urinary protein levels. Glomerular hypertrophy, glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis were assessed on kidney sections. Kidney disease progression was determined by the measurement of transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1) and renal inflammation by the measurement of chemokines monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and regulated upon activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES). Rats consuming the HP compared to NP diet had ~17% higher kidney weights (P<0.0001) and ~4.8 times higher proteinuria (P<0.0001). There was a trend towards higher creatinine clearance with HP (P=0.055). Consistent with this, HP compared to NP rats had ~22% larger glomeruli (P<0.0001) and ~33% more glomerulosclerosis (P=0.0003). The HP diet had no significant effect on tubulointerstitial fibrosis and renal TGF-β1 levels and did not result in higher renal levels of MCP-1 and RANTES. In fact, per mg renal protein, HP rats had ~16% lower MCP-1 (P<0.0001) and ~34% lower levels of RANTES (P<0.0001) than NP. The absence of an increase in cytokine levels may be a reflection of the moderate changes in renal pathology observed in rats offered HP diets. These data in normal female rats suggest that protein intakes at the upper end of the AMDR are detrimental to kidney health in the long-term. While modest, this may have implications for individuals whose kidney function is compromised, especially given the prevalence of those unaware of their kidney disease within North America.

Since its discovery in 1988 the powerful vasoconstrictor endothelin-1 (ET-1) has been widely implicated in the pathophysiology of chronic kidney disease (CKD) as well as the cardiovascular disease with which it is associated. ET receptor antagonists have favourable effects in experimental models of these conditions and orally acting antagonists are now licensed for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. However, there is a paucity of human data regarding the role of ET-1 in CKD. In this thesis, I have therefore explored the utility of ET-1 as a biomarker in CKD, and, using selective ET receptor antagonists, the beneficial renal and cardiovascular effects of ET receptor antagonism in CKD. I have shown that as glomerular filtration rate (GFR) declines plasma ET-1 increases linearly whereas urinary ET-1 shows an exponential increase. Furthermore, urinary ET-1 may be a useful marker of disease activity in patients with lupus nephritis. Its levels are high in those with biopsy-proven active renal inflammation and these fall with treatment. I have shown that in subjects with stable non-diabetic proteinuric CKD, acute selective ETA receptor antagonism reduces blood pressure and arterial stiffness and that these systemic benefits are associated with an increase in renal blood flow and reduction in proteinuria. Importantly, these effects are seen on top of those achieved with maximal therapy with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and/or angiotensin receptor blockers. Following a study confirming unchanged pharmacokinetics in CKD, I have used an oral selective ETA receptor antagonist to show that the reductions in BP, arterial stiffness and proteinuria seen in my acute studies are maintained longer term. This results of this study also suggest that the mechanism for the reduction in proteinuria is haemodynamic and relates to a reduction in GFR and filtration fraction. In summary, these studies suggest that ET-1 may act as a potential biomarker of renal inflammation, and confirm its role in the pathophysiology of the systemic and renal vasoconstriction seen in CKD. They also suggest that selective ETA receptor antagonism may provide a novel therapeutic approach in proteinuric CKD on top of standard therapies. Larger and longer term studies are now warranted to confirm this potential.

In setting the AMDR for protein at 10-35% of daily energy, the Institute of Medicine acknowledged a lack of data regarding the safety of long-term intakes. The current study assessed the impact of chronic (17 months) protein consumption at the upper end of the AMDR on renal function, histology, and inflammation. Using plant and animal whole protein sources, female Sprague-Dawley rats (70 days old; n=8-11 at 4, 8, 12, or 17 mo.) were randomized to either a normal (NP; 15% of energy) or high protein (HP; 35% of energy) diet. Egg albumen and skim milk replaced carbohydrates in the HP diet. Diets were balanced for energy, fat, vitamins and minerals, and offered ad libitum. Renal function was analyzed by creatinine clearance and urinary protein levels. Glomerular hypertrophy, glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis were assessed on kidney sections. Kidney disease progression was determined by the measurement of transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1) and renal inflammation by the measurement of chemokines monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and regulated upon activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES). Rats consuming the HP compared to NP diet had ~17% higher kidney weights (P<0.0001) and ~4.8 times higher proteinuria (P<0.0001). There was a trend towards higher creatinine clearance with HP (P=0.055). Consistent with this, HP compared to NP rats had ~22% larger glomeruli (P<0.0001) and ~33% more glomerulosclerosis (P=0.0003). The HP diet had no significant effect on tubulointerstitial fibrosis and renal TGF-β1 levels and did not result in higher renal levels of MCP-1 and RANTES. In fact, per mg renal protein, HP rats had ~16% lower MCP-1 (P<0.0001) and ~34% lower levels of RANTES (P<0.0001) than NP. The absence of an increase in cytokine levels may be a reflection of the moderate changes in renal pathology observed in rats offered HP diets. These data in normal female rats suggest that protein intakes at the upper end of the AMDR are detrimental to kidney health in the long-term. While modest, this may have implications for individuals whose kidney function is compromised, especially given the prevalence of those unaware of their kidney disease within North America.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karol. inst., 2003. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karol. inst., 2003. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.