The effect of thermal-cycling-induced microcracking in fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites is studied. Specific attention is focused on microcrack density as a function of the number of thermal cycles, and the effect of microcracking on the dimensional stability of composite materials. Changes in laminate coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and laminate stiffness are of primary concern. Included in the study are materials containing four different Thornel fiber types: a PAN-based T50 fiber and three pitch-based fibers, P55, P75, and P120. The fiber stiffnesses range from 55 Msi to 120 Msi. The fiber CTE's range from -0.50x10⁻⁶/°F to -0.80x10⁻⁶/°F. Also included are three matrix types: Fiberite's 934 epoxy, Amoco's ERL1962 toughened epoxy, and YLA's RS3 cyanate ester. The lamination sequences of the materials considered include a cross-ply configuration, [0/90]2s, and two quasi-isotropic configurations, [0/+45/-45/90]s and [0/+45/90/-45]s. The layer thickness of the materials range from a nominal 0.001 in. to 0.005 in. In addition to the variety of materials considered, three different thermal cycling temperature ranges are considered. These temperature ranges are ±250°F, ±150°F, and ±50°F. The combination of these material and geometric parameters and temperature ranges, combined with thermal cycling to thousands of cycles, makes this one of the most comprehensive studies of thermal-cycling-induced microcracking to date. Experimental comparisons are presented by examining the effect of layer thickness, fiber type, matrix type, and thermal cycling temperature range on microcracking and its influence on the laminates. Results regarding layer thickness effects indicate that thin-layer laminates microcrack more severely than identical laminates with thick layers. For some specimens in this study, the number of microcracks in thin-layer specimens exceeds that in thick-layer specimens by more than a factor of two. Despite the higher number of microcracks in the thin-layer specimens, small changes in CTE after thousands of cycles indicate that the thin-layer specimens are relatively unaffected by the presence of these cracks compared to the thick-layer specimens. Results regarding fiber type indicate that the number of microcracks and the change in CTE after thousands of cycles in the specimens containing PAN-based fibers are less than in the specimens containing comparable stiffness pitch-based fibers. Results for specimens containing the different pitch-based fibers indicate that after thousands of cycles, the number of microcracks in the specimens does not depend on the modulus or CTE of the fiber. The change in laminate CTE does, however, depend highly on the stiffness and CTE of the fiber. Fibers with higher stiffness and more negative CTE exhibit the lowest change in laminate CTE as a result of thermal cycling. The overall CTE of these specimens is, however, more negative as a result of the more negative CTE of the fiber. Results regarding matrix type based on the ±250°F temperature range indicate that the RS3 cyanate ester resin system exhibits the greatest resistance to microcracking and the least change in CTE, particularly for cycles numbering 3000 and less. Extrapolations to higher numbers of cycles indicate, however, that the margin of increased performance is expected to decrease with additional thermal cycling. Results regarding thermal cycling temperature range depend on the matrix type considered and the layer thickness of the specimens. For the ERL1962 resin system, microcrack saturation is expected to occur in all specimens, regardless of the temperature range to which the specimens are exposed. By contrast, the RS3 resin system demonstrates a threshold effect such that cycled to less severe temperature ranges, microcracking does not occur. For the RS3 specimens with 0.005 in. layer thickness, no microcracking or changes in CTE are observed in specimens cycled between between ±150°F or ±50°F. For the RS3 specimens with 0.002 in. layer thickness, no microcracking or changes in CTE are observed in specimens cycled between ±50°F.. Results regarding laminate stiffness indicate negligible change in laminate stiffness due to thermal cycling for the materials and geometries considered in this investigation. The study includes X-ray examination of the specimens, showing that cracks observed at the edge of the specimens penetrate the entire width of the specimen. Glass transition temperatures of the specimens are measured, showing that resin chemistry is not altered as a result of thermal cycling. Results are also presented based on a one-dimensional shear lag analysis developed in the literature. The analysis requires material property information that is difficult to obtain experimentally. Using limited data from the present investigation, material properties associated with the analysis are modified to obtain reasonable agreement with measured microcrack densities. Based on these derived material properties, the analysis generally overpredicts the change in laminate CTE. Predicted changes in laminate stiffness show reasonable correlation with experimentally measured values. / Ph. D.

[pt] O presente trabalho teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento de métodos eletroanalíticos empregando elétrodos de grafite-epóxi e diamante dopado com boro para a determinação do antibiótico sulfato de gentamicina, substâncias de interesse biológico (naftoquinonas) e do pesticida trifloxistrobina. O diamante dopado com boro (DDB) apresenta características atraentes de detecção eletroquímica que são úteis em aplicações analíticas baseadas em voltametria e amperometria. Possui uma ampla janela de potencial em soluções aquosas que permitiu a quantificação do fungicida trifloxistrobina (em +1744 mV versus Ag/AgCl(KClsat)) por voltametria de onda quadrada (SWV), em um tampão Britton-Robinson (0,04 mol L-1, pH 4,00 )/acetonitrila 70/30 por cento v/v. A curva de adição de analito foi obtida usando amplitude de pulso 40 mV, freqüência de 30 Hz, passo de potencial de 20 mV. O limite instrumental de detecção foi de 1,4 × 10-7 mol L-1 e a faixa linear dinâmica abrangeram três ordens de grandeza (10-7 a 10-5 mol L-1). As amostras foram analisadas com recuperações de cerca de 80 por cento em amostras de suco de laranja e de 92,4 a 104,0 por cento em amostras de água. Um estudo para avaliar potenciais interferentes foi realizado na presença de outros fungicidas. Estudos diagnósticos indicaram que a oxidação da trifloxistrobina em meio aquoso na superfície do DDB é irreversível, envolvendo duas etapas, cada um com dois elétrons. A degradação UV da trifloxistrobina foi avaliada utilizando o método eletroquímico proposto e a cinética de degradação estabelecida com meia-vida de 1.07 min. A amperometria por injeção em batelada (BIA do inglês batch-injection analysis) com o DDB (operando a +2000 mV) foi utilizada para desenvolver um método para a determinação de sulfato de gentamicina. A extração em fase sólida (SPE do inglês solid-phase extraction), utilizando um cartucho empacotado com um polímero impresso molecularmente, tendo a canamicina como molécula molde, foi utilizada para melhorar a seletividade. O tampão acetato (0,01 mol L-1; pH 4,4) foi utilizado como eletrólito suporte. A oxidação do sulfato de gentamicina ocorreu logo após a injeção do analito (60 microlitros) que entra em contato com a superfície do eletrodo. O cartucho de SPE foi muito eficiente na retenção do analito quando comparado com o polímero não-impresso correspondente (NIP). A curva analítica apresentou resposta linear, a precisão instrumental foi inferior a 3 por cento e o limite de quantificação foi de 2,7 × 10-6 mol L-1. A frequência analítica foi de 90 medições h-1 e nenhum efeito de memória foram observados entre as medidas sequênciais. O desempenho do método proposto foi comparado com o obtido por HPLC-UV e com espectrofotometria de absorção molecular (ambos após derivação química do analito com o-ftalaldeído ou com ninhidrina). O método desenvolvido neste trabalho foi aplicado em formulações farmacêuticas injetáveis e em amostras simuladas, com recuperações próximas de 100 por cento. Para a determinação do lapachol foi utilizada a SWV usando um eletrodo de grafite-epoxi feito no laboratório. O meio eletrolítico utilizado foi uma solução aquosa contendo o surfactante catiônico CTAB (1,2 × 10-4 mol L-1), tampão fosfato (4,0 × 10-2 mol L-1, pH 6,0) e KNO3 (1,0 mol L-1). O surfactante catiônico melhorou a difusão e a interação do analito com o eletrodo, produzindo um processo reversível que melhorou a corrente total medida pelo sistema. O sinal do lapachol foi medido a -470 mV, após pré-concentração a 400 mV durante 140 s, usando frequência de 30 Hz, amplitude de pulso de 40 mV com passo de potencial de 20 mV. O limite instrumental de detecção foi de 0,029 mg L-1 e a faixa linear dinâmica abrangeu duas ordens de grandeza. Na presença de beta-lapachona (isômero estrutural), a seletividade foi obtida pela derivada de primeira ordem do sinal SWV. A determinação do lapachol em extrato etanólico de Tabebuia impetiginosa foi realizada após uma s / [en] The present work aimed to develop electroanalytical methods using graphite-epoxy and boron-doped diamond electrodes for the determination of the antibiotic gentamicin sulfate, substances of biological interest (naphthoquinones) and the pesticide trifloxystrobin. Boron doped diamond (BDD) features attractive electrochemical detection characteristics that are useful in analytical applications based on voltammetry and amperometry. It has a wide potential window in aqueous solutions that allowed the quantification of the fungicide trifloxystrobin (in +1744 mV versus Ag/AgCl(KClsat)) by square-wave voltammetry (SWV) in Britton-Robinson buffer (0.04 mol L-1, pH 4.00) / acetonitrile 70/30 percent v/v electrolyte medium. The analyte addition curve was constructed using 40 mV pulse amplitude, 30 Hz frequency, 20 mV step potential. The instrumental limit of detection was 1.4 × 10-7 mol L-1 and the linear dynamic range covered three orders of magnitude (from 10-7 to 10-5 mol L-1). Recoveries of about 80 percent in orange juice samples and 92.4 to 104.0 percent in water samples. A study to evaluate potential interferences was carried out in the presence of other fungicides. Diagnostic studies indicated that the oxidation of trifloxystrobin in aqueous medium, on the surface of the BDD, is irreversible, involving two steps, each of them with two electrons. UV degradation of trifloxystrobin was studied using the proposed voltammetric method and degradation kinetics with a half-life of 1.07 min was established. Batch injection amperometry (BIA) with BDD (operating at +2000 mV) was used to develop a method for the determination of gentamicin sulfate. Solid phase extraction (SPE) using a cartridge packed with a molecular imprinting polymer made with kanamycin as the template molecule, was used to improve the selectivity. The acetate buffer (0.01 mol L-1; pH 4.40) was used as supporting electrolyte. Oxidation of gentamicin sulfate occurred right after the analyte (60 microlitres solution) comes into contact with the surface of the electrode. The SPE cartridge packed with MIP was very efficient in retaining the analyte when compared to the one packed with the corresponding non-printed polymer (NIP). The analytical curve was linear, the instrument accuracy was less than 3 percent and the limit of quantification was 2.7 × 10-6 mol L-1. The analytical frequency was 90 measurements h-1 and no memory effect was observed between sequential measurements. The performance of the proposed method was compared with that obtained by HPLC-UV and molecular absorption spectrophotometry (both after chemical derivatization of the analyte with o-phthalaldehyde or with ninhydrin). The method was applied in injectable pharmaceutical formulations and in simulated samples, with recoveries close to 100 percent. For the determination of lapachol SWV was employed using a graphite-epoxy electrode made in the laboratory. The electrolytic medium used was an aqueous solution containing the cationic surfactant CTAB (1.2 × 10-4 mol L-1), phosphate buffer (4.0 × 10 -2 mol L-1, pH 6.00) and KNO3 (1.0 mol L-1). The cationic surfactant improved the diffusion and interaction of the analyte with the electrode, producing a reversible process that improved the total current measured by the system. The lapachol signal was measured at -470 mV after preconcentration at 400 mV for 140 s, using a 30 Hz frequency, 40 mV pulse amplitude with a step potential of 20 mV. The instrumental limit of detection was 0.029 mg L-1 and the dynamic linear range comprised two orders of magnitude. In the presence of beta-lapachone (structural isomer), the selectivity was obtained by the first-order derivative of the SWV signal. The determination of lapachol in ethanolic extract of Tabebuia impetiginosa was carried out after a simple separation of the analyte by thin layer chromatography. The results are statistically similar (with 95 percent confidence level) with those performed through HPLC-UV. Studies for the simultaneous determination of beta-lapachone and alpha-lapachone were also successful