No Sul do Brasil ocorrem mosaicos naturais de vegetação campestre e florestal, sob um clima que é favorável às formações florestais. O processo de expansão florestal tem sido observado principalmente sobre áreas de campo excluído de perturbações de fogo e pastejo. Estudos sobre padrões de vegetação lenhosa associados a variáveis ambientais locais em áreas de campo sujeitas à expansão florestal constituem uma importante ferramenta para avaliação da dinâmica da vegetação considerando mudanças ambientais ou de regime de perturbação. No intuito de inferir sobre os processos relacionados à expansão florestal sobre campos no Sul do Brasil, este estudo busca os padrões atuais na composição e estrutura da vegetação lenhosa sobre uma área de campo excluído de manejo há 34 anos e as possíveis associações destes com variáveis espaciais e ambientais. Para tanto, amostramos a vegetação lenhosa em 110 unidades amostrais circulares (6m de raio) estabelecidas de forma sistemática (equidistantes 100m) sobre áreas originalmente mapeadas, em 1985, como vegetação campestre ou vassoural. A amostragem foi estratificada para o critério de inclusão baseado no diâmetro do caule a altura do solo (DAS). As unidades amostrais de 6m de raio contemplavam os indivíduos com DAS5cm e estas incluíram três sub-parcelas de 1m de raio para amostragem proporcional de indivíduos menores (DAS<5cm, mas com altura superior a 1m). Como variáveis ambientais, a distância mínima de uma área-fonte florestal e fatores químicos e físicos do solo foram avaliados para cada unidade amostral. Os dados de vegetação foram analisados através de parâmetros fitossociológicos, sendo os padrões, e suas relações com o ambiente, acessados por análise exploratória conjugando técnicas estatísticas uni e multivariadas. Os resultados revelam que em áreas campestres excluídas de fogo e pastejo, como a que foi estudada, ocorre um processo espacial e temporal relacionado com a distância da área fonte florestal, mostrando um gradiente sucessional. Quanto mais próximo da antiga borda florestal, as comunidades de espécies lenhosas são mais antigas e caracterizadas por espécies mais tipicamente florestais. A medida que o processo se afasta da borda encontram-se comunidades em estágios sucessionais intermediários, onde os arbustos campestres gradualmente cedem lugar a espécies florestais pioneiras, nucleadoras de vegetação florestal, as quais atraem dispersores e criam condições favoráveis ao estabelecimento de mais espécies florestais. E nas áreas mais distantes da borda ainda predominam arbustos campestres (e.g. Baccharis uncinella). Eles gradativamente suprimem o estrato herbáceo de gramíneas pela sua abundância e, em alguma medida, facilitam o estabelecimento das espécies florestais pioneiras. Nesses processos, o solo se modifica em direção a condições de maior acúmulo de matéria orgânica e de maior fertilidade, mais favoráveis ao estabelecimento de espécies florestais. / In South of Brazil there are forest-grassland mosaics under a climate suit for forest development. The forest expansion process has been observed mainly over grasslands excluded from cattle grazing and fire disturbances. Studies accessing patterns of woody vegetation linked to local environmental variables in grasslands areas subject to forest expansion constitute an important tool for vegetation dynamics evaluation considering environmental or disturbance management changes. Our purpose is access the current woody vegetation patterns and their potential linking with spatial and environmental variables on a grassland area excluded from management since 34 years ago. For this we surveyed woody species on 110 sampling units systematically plotted (halfway 100m) over areas that were originally mapped at 1985 as grasslands or shrublands. The sampling was stratified according to the inclusion criterion based on the stem diameter at the height of the soil (DHS). In the 6m ray sampling units all individuals with DHS5cm were surveyed and, inside them, three sub-plots of 1m of ray were used to sample proportional smaller individuals (DHS<5cm, but with more than 1m height). As environmental variables, the minimum distance of a forest area-source, and chemical and physical soil characteristics were considered for each sampling unit. The vegetation data and patterns were analyzed through phytosociological parameters and by exploratory analysis conjugating united and multivariate statistical techniques. The results revealed that grassland areas excluded of fire and grazing, as the one that it was studied, are suitable to spatial and temporal processes related to the distance of the source-forest area, showing a sucessional gradient. Close to the old forest border, the woody species communities are older and characterized by typical forest species. As the process stands back of the border the communities are in intermediate sucessional stage, where grassland shrubs gradually give up place to pioneer forest species, nurse species, which attract dispersers and create favorable conditions to the establishment of more forest species, allowing forest expansion process. In the most distant border areas grassland shrubs still prevail (e.g. Baccharis uncinella). They gradually suppress the grasses stratum because of their abundance and, in some way, facilitate the establishment of pioneer forest species. In those processes, the soil modifies towards conditions of larger accumulation of organic matter and larger fertility, more favorable to the establishment of forest species.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-02-26T14:52:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 IsabelCamiloCamargo.pdf: 2508256 bytes, checksum: 8de2826230ba92ef6ffde2f45c8ab65a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-08-30 / This work arose from the need to contribute to the advancement of studies on the creation pastoral activity as important in the formation of the Brazilian society. The predatory extraction promoted the rapid failure of the El Dorados Brazil (Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso and Goias) and acted in the production process so as to offset the capital used in mining to other sectors, including livestock. In the case of Mato Grosso, the failure of mineral extraction has become an unsustainable activity to society, something that encouraged the development of agropastoral property. This reversal of capital has transformed the interior of Mato Grosso in central attraction for those seeking to acquire ownership of vast vacant land suitable for cattle breeding. In the process of constructing the historical discourse on this object, two aspects have not escaped our analysis: the first refers to the identification of ideologies embedded in the temporal processes, which helps explain the close relationship between family power and power structures, motion guiding much of the historical development of brazilian society. A another aspect relates to reflection on the founding myths emanating from the company in question. It was assigned to the incoming mineiros and francanos the position of Pathfinders, the first settlers, they came in carts and on horseback to occupy the uninhabited space. Since the 1830s, the area of Santana de Paranaíba was achieved by the movement of population growth promoted by pioneer settler said. The tables prepared concerning the material and social life of Santana de Paranaíba, highlight the glaring historiographical silence facing pastoral production in the context of the slave order, apart from showing that the approaches on the developments and characteristics of this activity requires effective projects for waiver archival sources. From the methodological point of view, we conducted a rigorous initial review of the literature and were surprised by the lack of research on the topic. As a support frame support, we used the dialectical method that describes the investigative particularly in light of economic, political, social and cultural. It was, however, considered the new possibilities offered by recent historiography (French and English) in ways to read and write history in order to identify the way in different places and different time frames or in a social reality is constructed. We list, we analyze and detect the boundaries of the production of memoirs or memoirs organized in the form of biographies, genealogies, diaries, narratives and memories. We also use historical sources found at local and regional archives, especially the Court of Mato Grosso do Sul, where we find a multiplicity of sources involving letters of freedom, procurement of slaves, inventories and processes crimes. Materials are produced in the nineteenth century, relating mainly in respect of the District of Santana de Paranaíba. Based on this material we find valuable clues to explain the process of formation and development of farms, especially the types of labor used in pastoral labors in the area / Este trabalho nasceu da necessidade de contribuir para o avanço dos estudos sobre a criação pastoril enquanto atividade importante no processo de formação da sociedade brasileira. A extração predatória promoveu a rápida falência dos eldorados brasileiros (Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso e Goiás) e atuou no processo produtivo de forma a deslocar os capitais utilizados na mineração para outros setores, entre eles a pecuária. No caso de Mato Grosso, o insucesso da extração mineira se transformou em uma atividade insustentável para a sociedade, aspecto que ensejou o desenvolvimento da propriedade agropastoril. Essa inversão de capitais transformou o sertão mato-grossense num centro atrativo para quem buscava adquirir a posse de imensos terrenos devolutos propícios à criação bovina. No processo de construção do discurso histórico sobre esse objeto, dois aspectos não escaparam de nossa análise: o primeiro refere-se à identificação das ideologias inseridas nos processos temporais, o que ajuda explicar a estreita relação entre poder familiar e estruturas de poder, movimento norteador de grande parte da formação histórica da sociedade brasileira.O outro aspecto relaciona-se à reflexão sobre os mitos fundadores emanados da sociedade em questão. Foi atribuída aos entrantes mineiros e francanos a posição de desbravadores, de primeiros ocupantes, eles chegaram de carreta e a cavalo para ocupar o espaço desabitado. Desde a década de 1830, a região de Santana de Paranaíba foi alcançada pelo movimento de expansão demográfica promovida pelo dito pioneiro colonizador. Os quadros elaborados, a respeito da vida material e social de Santana de Paranaíba, evidenciam o flagrante silêncio historiográfico voltado para a produção pastoril no contexto da ordem escravista, além de revelar que as abordagens sobre os desdobramentos e características dessa atividade exigem projetos efetivos de levantamento de fontes arquivais. Do ponto de vista metodológico, realizamos inicialmente uma rigorosa revisão de literatura e nos surpreendemos com a falta de pesquisas relacionadas ao tema em questão. Como suporte referencial de sustentação, utilizamos o método dialético investigativo que descreve o particular à luz do contexto econômico, político, social e cultural. Foi, no entanto, considerada as novas possibilidades oferecidas pela historiografia recente (francesa e inglesa) nas maneiras de ler e fazer história no sentido de identificar o modo como em distintos lugares e ou em temporalidades diversas uma realidade social é construída. Arrolamos, analisamos e detectamos os limites da produção de escritos memorialísticos ou memórias escritas organizados sob a forma de biografias, genealogias, diários, narrativas e memórias. Também utilizamos fontes históricas encontradas nos arquivos locais e regionais, principalmente o Tribunal de Justiça de Mato Grosso do Sul, onde encontramos uma multiplicidade de fontes envolvendo cartas de liberdade, contratos de posse de escravos, inventários e processos crimes. São materiais produzidos no século XIX, relacionados principalmente no que diz respeito à Comarca de Santana de Paranaíba. Com base nesse material encontramos pistas preciosas para a explicação do processo de formação e desenvolvimento das fazendas, com destaque para os tipos de mão de obra utilizada nas lides pastoris da região.

Submitted by Edineia Teixeira (edineia.teixeira@unioeste.br) on 2018-03-02T14:30:01Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Tainã_Souza2017.pdf: 1552836 bytes, checksum: 703b44ba8e7bfb67ea4f53db3168942c (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-03-02T14:30:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Tainã_Souza2017.pdf: 1552836 bytes, checksum: 703b44ba8e7bfb67ea4f53db3168942c (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-16 / Considered one of the greatest families among the angiosperms and with great ecological amplitude, Poaceae species can be found both in forest as well as in campestre formations. The goal of the present study was to perform the first floristic survey of Poaceae in one of the last remnants native vegetation of campestre formations in Paraná, the Guartelá State Park (GSP), besides elaborate dichotomous keys in order to identify the genera and species. The survey was carried out based on field collecting and database search. The dichotomous keys were elaborated using qualitative and quantitative characters of the genera and species. In the GSP, the family is represented by 54 species belonging to 29 genera, Paspalum L. (8 spp.), Andropogon L. (5 spp.) and Eragrostis Wolf (4 spp.) being the ones that presented the greater number of species. The number of species cited previously to the GSP increased in 29 names and from the total (54) five are considered exotic, five endemics to Brazil and two are categorized as least concern to conservation, occurring both in dry and wet areas, highlighting the importance of the GSP microenvironments conservation. Information regarding the distribution, habitat and species conservation are presented. / Considerada uma das maiores famílias entre as Angiospermas e com grande amplitude ecológica, Poaceae tem suas espécies encontradas tanto em formações florestais como em campestres. O presente estudo teve como objetivo realizar o primeiro levantamento florístico de Poaceae em uma das últimas vegetações nativas remanescentes de formações campestres no Paraná, o Parque Estadual do Guartelá (PEG), além de elaborar chaves dicotômicas para identificação dos gêneros e espécies. O levantamento foi realizado com base em coletas a campo e busca em banco de dados. As chaves dicotômicas foram elaboradas utilizando caracteres qualitativos e quantitativos dos gêneros e espécies. No PEG, a família esta representada por 54 espécies pertencentes a 29 gêneros, sendo Paspalum L. (8 spp.), Andropogon L. (5 spp.) e Eragrostis Wolf (4 spp.) os que apresentaram maior número de espécies. Ampliou-se o número de espécies citadas anteriormente para o PEG em 29 nomes e do total (54) cinco são consideradas exóticas, cinco endêmicas para o Brasil e duas estão categorizadas como pouco preocupantes para conservação, tendo ocorrência tanto em áreas drenadas quanto úmidas, destacando a importância da conservação dos microambientes do PEG. São apresentadas informações acerca da distribuição, hábitat e conservação das espécies.

No description available.

European floodplain grasslands are characterized by periodic flooding and regular management, usually cutting and grazing as part of an agricultural system. Past losses and ecological degradation have been due largely to river regulation and either agricultural intensification or abandonment and have resulted in a substantial reduction in area across Europe. Nevertheless, the remaining resource supports considerable biodiversity and a high level of biological production. A better quantitative understanding of the functioning of these grasslands is required in order to establish effective conservation management within a sustainable land use system. The thesis examines the impact of key management factors on three important functional characteristics of the biodiversity of floodplain plant communities, namely plant diversity (measured by species diversity), cover (%) and primary production (above-ground biomass), on two floodplain grasslands of the River Trent, UK and a third on the the Luznice river, the Czech Republic. Field investigations of the effects of cutting, grazing, cessation of management, the influence of floodborne litter, and the impact of fertilizer nitrogen were undertaken over periods of between one and three seasons. These demonstrated that floodplain grassland plant communities are sensitive to variations in management and that impacts on communities are mediated particularly through effects on plant competition. Productive competitive species were encouraged both by abandonment and fertilizer application whereas cutting and grazing management, and the imposition of litter, favoured stress-tolerating perennials. Species diversity decreased both with high inputs of litter and additions of fertilizer. Plant community responses and competitive strategies of key species are discussed in the context of biodiversity conservation, ecological restoration and management of European floodplain grasslands.

The grasslands of South Africa are the foundation of commercial and subsistence agriculture yet they are being degraded at an alanning rate. The coastal grasslands of the Eastern Cape are no exception and they suffer added pressure of coastal resort development because of their proximity to an attractive coastline. In order to determine the degree of conservation necessary for any area it is essential to know what species occur there in order to determine if protection from habitat destruction is required. Four aims were defined for this studv. The initial aim was a phytogeographical classification of the grasslands in the coastal region west of the Kei River. This was done by vegetation sampling followed by computer based analysis with TWINSPAN. This analysis defined ten grassland associations. five being located in the area west of the Keiskamma River and five occurring east of it. The associations in the eastern half are termed mesic while those in the western balf are xeric. The second aim was to determine the presence of any underlying ecological gradients affecting the distribution of tbe associations. Indirect gradient analysis was carried out where samples are analysed irrespective of environmental factors. Direct gradient analysis was then carried out using scores per sample of various environmental factors. Environmental factors whicb migbt produce such gradients are both naturally-ocurring and man-induced. Natural factors which were recorded in the field include depth of soil at sample site, soil family, aspect and distance from the shore. An important factor is the land / sea interface. Natural factors analysed in the laboratory include soil pH. conductivity. percent organic matter, calcium, magnesium, phosphate and potassium. Man-induced factors are land use history e.g. Ploughing and grazing. Both direct and indirect gradient analysis were carried out with the computer based programme CANOCO. The third aim of the study was to determine the presence of any successional trends between the ten defined associations. This was done using several characteristics of the associations. Alpha and beta diversity were the first factors compared between associations. The percentage contribution of the Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Asteraceae and Poaceae to each association was assessed and compared. The presence of various life forms of the species occurring in each association was determined together with the cover abundance of different classes of grass species. These results were then combined and analysed in the light of the results from CANOCO analvsis. They show that the mesic Themeda Iriandra - Anthospermum herhoceum, association which occurs closest to the shore and with the least disturbance is a depauperate form of the mesic climax Themeda triandra association. The mesic Hyparrhenia hirta - Dtheteropogon amplectens association may be a secondary grassland on account of phosphate and potassiun poor soils and land-use. The mesic Hyparrhenia hirta - Themedo triandra association is a slightly degraded form of the climax association due to grazing. The severely disturbed Stenotaphrum secundatum - C'entella coriacea association, which is located close to the shore, is a secondary grassland. Analysis of the xeric associations indicates a clearly defined ordination of associations on the basis of land-use. The Cynodon daclylon - Helictolrichon hirtulum and Sporobolis africanus - Setaria sphacelata associations which occur where ploughed lands have been left to lie fallow are secondary in nature. The Themeda triandra - Ehrharta calycina association is thought to be the closest representati ve of a climax xeric association but the presence of E. calycina indicates that some disturbance has occurred. The vegetation is subject to moderate grazing. The Cynodon dactylon - Ehrharla calycina and Diheleropogon filifolius - Ehrharla calycina associations are subject to varying intensities of trampling and grazing and are degraded forms of the Themeda triandra - Ehrharla calycina association. Because of tbe overriding influence of the land-use gradient separation along gradients of the remaining eight factors was limited. The effect of fire and temporal change in the mesic Themeda triandra and Hyparrhenia hirta - Themeeia trianda associations was assessed via long-term studies at Potter's Pass outside East London. The results show a quick response to burning with a return to 100% cover within six months by both associations. During spring the two associations could not be separated by either TWINSPAN or DECORANA. indicating a temporal shift from the Hyparrhenia hirta - Themeda triandra association to the Themeda triandra association. The fourth and final aim was to identify plants requiring protection from habitat destruction and to make recommendations for further conservation areas and management of the coastal grasslands. Through the collection and identification of as many plants as possible a species checklist was prepared and the status of each was determined through reference to the Red Data Book of threatened and endangered species. Kniphofia rooperi is vulnerable in the Cape and Euphorbia hupleuroides is considered rare in kwazulu-Natal. Ten species are endemic to the Cape and / or South Africa. The richness of the vegetation lies in the presence of species representative of the four major floras which converge in the eastern Cape. i.e. The Cape, NamaKarroo, Tongoland-Pondolaod floras and the Kalahari Highveld Regional Transitional Zone. Suggestions are made for the conservation of the grassland associations at various sites within the study area based on the present area conserved. Less than 2% of the coastline in the study area is conserved and it is felt that the area under conservation should be increased. Management suggestions based on the available literature are given for both farmed and conserved areas. There is a great potential for further studies on grassland dmamics within the areas surveyed. In terms of management, the grasslands require careful examination to determine the most effective season in which to burn if at all. As with most agricultural systems in South Africa. grazing strategies will benefit from further research. Any additional research on the dynamics of these grasslands can only be of benefit to the sustained utilisation of this vital resource.

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Brett K. Sandercock / Grassland birds are declining throughout their native range. The Flint Hills of eastern Kansas and Oklahoma contain large tracts of tallgrass prairie, but intensification of agricultural practices may be contributing to ongoing population declines. Common rangeland management practices include annual burning coupled with heavy grazing by cattle. This system, known as intensive early stocking and burning, promotes homogeneous utilization of forage by cattle but may not provide habitat for some grassland bird species. Patch-burn grazing is an alternative management system that aims to restore heterogeneity on rangelands by recreating the fire-grazing interaction that would have historically occurred throughout the Great Plains. From 2011-2013, we examined responses of grassland birds to traditional rangeland management and patch-burn grazing by conducting vegetation surveys, line transect surveys, and nest monitoring on privately-owned pastures in Chase County and Greenwood County, Kansas. Vegetative heterogeneity was higher on patch-burned pastures, with unburned patches having higher visual obstruction and less bare ground. Densities of grassland birds differed by species and among habitat strata. Unburned patches on patch-burned pastures were associated with increased densities of Dickcissels (Spiza americana), Eastern Meadowlarks (Sturnella magna) and Grasshopper Sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum). Henslow’s Sparrows (A. henslowii) were only detected on patch-burned pastures. Nest survival of grassland songbirds was similar among management systems but varied by year. Probability of nest parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater) varied among years and between treatments for Dickcissels and Grasshopper Sparrows, with overall lower rates on burned areas and during drought years. For Dickcissels and Grasshopper Sparrows, there was a significant reduction in host clutch size between parasitized versus unparasitized nests. Overall, nest survival of grassland songbirds in managed rangelands was low. Patch-burn grazing improved rangeland conditions and provided habitat for more species of birds, but did not increase nest survival. Drought conditions in 2012 and 2013 may have influenced the results of this study, as many landowners were unable to burn as planned. Further study is needed to determine underlying factors driving variation in nest success and parasitism rates for grassland birds, particularly on private lands which make up the vast majority of remnant tallgrass prairies.

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Brett K. Sandercock / Cattle-grazing is a dominant land use in the United States, with more than 300 million hectares of land grazed each year. The habitat changes facilitated by cattle grazing can influence resource availability and habitat selection for associated wildlife. To investigate the potential for changes in traditional livestock management to restore native grassland and riparian habitat, we evaluated biological community responses to winter-grazing and livestock exclusion at the Kansas Army Ammunition Plant in southeastern Kansas. In grassland habitats, we combined winter-grazing by domestic cattle and discontinued fertilization in an attempt to restore pastures dominated by tall fescue to native tallgrass prairie and improve habitat for grassland-breeding birds. We observed a decrease in tall fescue and an increase in native, warm-season grasses in winter-grazed pastures compared to fertilized, year-round grazed pastures. Grassland-breeding bird responses to winter-grazing were species-specific. Dickcissels preferred winter-grazed pastures, while Eastern Meadowlarks and Grasshopper Sparrows tended to prefer year-round grazed pastures. Dickcissels were negatively correlated with the presence of cattle during the breeding season and the abundance of tall fescue. Grasshopper Sparrows were negatively correlated with native, warm-season grass abundance and visual obstruction, but were positively correlated with forb abundance. Henslow’s Sparrows and Common Yellowthroats were detected breeding in low numbers on pastures that had been winter-grazed for five years. Our results suggest that winter-grazing and discontinued fertilization of agricultural grasslands can direct semi-natural plant communities toward tallgrass prairie and benefit some grassland-breeding birds. In riparian habitats, livestock were excluded from 1996 to 2005. We measured bird community responses in grazed and ungrazed sites using baseline data collected in 1996-97 and post-treatment data collected in 2004-05. Riparian bird community data were analyzed using robust design mark-recapture models that allowed us to evaluate changes in bird species richness while accounting for differences in detectability among species. We detected increases in species richness in both ungrazed and grazed treatments. We observed few differences in community vital rates between treatments; however, we did detect differences in guild responses. The changes observed within both grazed and ungrazed riparian bird communities were likely influenced by regional fluctuations in species richness and composition.

The social organization of the vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) and its relationship to the environment were studied at the Pampa Galeras National Vicuna Reserve in southern Peru from May 1968 to April 1971. 2 Behavioral data were collected on groups within a grid of 12.4 km during 3,800 hours of observation. The vicuna's alpine grassland environment was characterized by greatly fluctuating and freezing temperatures, light precipitation, high evaporation, wind, short growing seasons, shallow and infertile soils and low plant production. Vicuna habitat quality was dependent upon high producing, preferred vegetation types and close access to permanent water and a sleeping area. Only one-third of the Reserve was good habitat and less than 20 percent of the Cupitay Valley study area was preferred by feeding vicuna. Territorial behavior has evolved in this environment where food resources are generally in short supply, annually renewed on locally abundant patchy sites, but predictable in time and space and defendable. Nearly 90 percent of females 2 years and older were pregnant at the beginning of the birth season and 90 percent of all births occurred between 22 February and 7 April. Ten to 30 percent of the crias (juveniles) died during their first 4 months. Five social units were distinguished, with the population primarily composed of Male Groups (MGs) and family groups: Permanent Territorial Family Groups (PTFGs) occupied good habitat and Marginal Territorial Family Groups (MTFGs) secondary habitat. Most PTFGs and MTFGs each occupied a year-round feeding territory in the day and a separate sleeping territory at night. Average group size for PTFGs was six (one male, three females and two crias) and they composed about 55 percent of the population. MTFGs were smaller (five), composed 40 percent of the population, had lower reproductive success and spent less time in their feeding territories than PTFGs. Non-territorial MGs averaged 20 animals and were chased out of zones occupied by PTFGs and MTFGs. As the number of groups increased, the frequency and intensity of territorial defense by males also increased. Territories provided a place free from intraspecific interference where females could feed, sleep, mate, give birth and raise their young. Feeding territories averaged 18 ha and sleeping territories 3 ha in size. A small cluster of sleeping territories on the flattened ridge formed a cummunal sleeping area for groups using the adjacent valleys. MGs and MTFGs made greater use of ridges and the non-preferred bl.lllch grass communities, because they were excluded from preferred areas occupied by PTFGs. Group size was significantly (P<.05) correlated with territory size and total forage production (P<.01) within feeding territories. The territorial male had a major role in the social organization of a population, since he established the location, borders and size of feeding territories. He also regulated the size of his family group by expelling the lowest ranking and youngest members before they became 1 year old (male and female crias), and by accepting or rejecting outsiders attempting to join. Marginal habitat within Cupitay Valley and vacant habitat in surrounding areas became filled by dispersing animals as the total population in the Reserve increased 36 percent during the study.

The aim of this study is to gain a predictive understanding of the patterns and determinants of plant biodiversity in temperate, mesic grasslands of South Africa with a primary focus on the geographical area of the Eastern Cape. From a review of the literature on hypotheses explaining diversity (Chapter 2) it was possible to formulate a number of hypotheses that could be tested to explain species richness patterns in Eastern Cape grasslands. This thesis is organised so that each main chapter deals with a specific body of theory concerning the explanation of diversity patterns. A detailed description of the study area is provided (Chapter 3), including environmental variation and a description of major vegetation patterns. A summary is provided of grassland plant community patterns, as determined by phytosociological studies in the study area. A multivariate analysis of environmental variables was undertaken to determine which variables contributed the most towards explaining environmental variation in the study area and to determine whether any variables co-vary, a possible problem for any multivariate analysis in later chapters. Altitude produced one of the strongest gradients in the study area. There were a number of variables that were correlated with altitude, most notably temperature. Rainfall co-varied partially with altitude, but there was also a strong rainfall gradient perpendicular to the altitude gradient. A description of species richness, diversity and evenness patterns at the plot scale within different grassland plant communities of the Eastern Cape is provided in Chapter 4. To determine whether the environment acts differently on different growth forms, the contribution to species richness by different major growth forms is analysed. Furthermore, since the majority of literature attempts to explain diversity in terms of environmental factors, it was necessary to analyse the relationship between species richness and various environmental variables. The results indicate that there is high variation in species richness both within and among grassland communities. Forbs make the most significant contribution to overall species richness per 100 m2, followed by grasses. Variance in richness of all species together is not significantly related to environmental variables in mesic grasslands, but is significantly related to environmental variables in semi-arid grasslands. The result of greatest interest from this chapter is the fact that richness amongst different life-forms in the same place is explained by different environmental factors, indicating that the environmental factors that affect coexistence of species have a different effect on different life-forms. A classification of all the species of the dataset into plant functional types using a multivariate approach based on functional traits was conducted (Chapter 5). The grass species were classified into 16 functional types and the forbs into 14 functional types. The functional type classification provided the opportunity for undertaking analyses to develop an understanding of 8 the contribution by niche differentiation towards promoting species richness (Chapter 6). The results provide evidence of niche differentiation in the grasslands of the study area and also that niche differentiation promotes species richness in the grasslands of the study area. It was found that higher rainfall grasslands are less structured by niche differentiation than semi-arid grasslands. A regional / historical analysis is undertaken (Chapter 7) to investigate the relationship between the regional species pool and local richness, and the relationship between local richness and phytochorological diversity. Regional richness appears to have little effect in promoting local richness in grassland plant communities of the study area except at sites where there is high local richness. This provides an indication that regional richness only promotes local richness in the absence of local limiting factors. Phytochorological diversity promotes local richness, but mostly through diversity amongst species with narrow distribution ranges. Some theories ascertain that seasonal uncertainty may provide opportunities to species that would otherwise be outcompeted and thereby promote local richness. The degree to which seasonal uncertainty and seasonality promote local richness in the Eastern Cape grasslands was therefore investigated (Chapter 8). A weak relationship exists between these variables and local species richness in grassland communities of the study area, indicating that they do not promote niche differentiation to a significant degree in the study area. It is clear that in the grasslands of the Eastern Cape, environmental limiting factors are more important in semi-arid grasslands and species interactions are more important in mesic grasslands for structuring plant communities (Chapter 9, Discussion). Regional processes do not appear to be important in structuring local communities, but the analysis undertaken in this study shows that they may be significant when factors operating at the other two levels are overcome (species interactions and environmental limiting factors.