The purpose of my research is to illuminate the gendered and ethnic stereotyping of Easterners in Roman literature of the central period (c. 200 BCE to 200 CE), particularly in texts concerned with masculinity and warfare. Military situations were often constructed as the ultimate ‘tests’ of masculinity and Romanness, and they are, therefore, uniquely revealing for the constructions of these ideas. The idea of gendered lifestyles was central to these constructions. Roman authors distinguished between easy, pleasurable, feminine lifestyles and hard, austere, masculine ones. Masculinity and virtue were intertwined, and these precepts informed the ways in which Roman authors constructed their own worth, and the worth of other peoples. Easterners were presented as living luxurious, pleasurable lives, which were contrasted with a stereotypical Roman life of martial toil. However, when Easterners were depicted in martial contexts, this resulted in the caricature of their inabilities in this area. The accusation that Easterners allowed pleasure into martial contexts underpins these caricatures, and this was particularly challenging for Roman authors. Athletic training, for example, was constructed as pseudo-martial but inadequately so, as it was enjoyable. This was contrasted with difficult, ‘true’ military training, which helped build a man’s endurance, and proved his masculinity. The relationship of Easterners to arma (arms) was also deemed troubled, and Easterners were often constructed as having poor ability with arms, or an interest in adorned arms for their aesthetic value rather than their rugged purpose. Similarly, in the naval sphere, Roman authors were prone to depict Hellenistic rulers with luxurious and ornamented flagships, oversized and unsuitable for real warfare. In essence, these constructions were used to affirm Roman superiority – both moral and military – and also to serve as a warning as to what could happen should Romans allow themselves to succumb to easy, ‘effeminate’ lifestyles. Fundamentally, I argue that gendered constructions of ethnic ‘warlikeness’ were the principal force behind the disparagement of Greeks and other Easterners in Roman literature.

Submitted by Paula Quirino (paula.quirino@ufpe.br) on 2015-03-04T19:04:05Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Janduí de Oliveira.pdf: 475068 bytes, checksum: 9785369a3f2d79d6aefc0ddc97daa600 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-04T19:04:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Janduí de Oliveira.pdf: 475068 bytes, checksum: 9785369a3f2d79d6aefc0ddc97daa600 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / A busca da felicidade sempre fez parte da vida humana, por isso, desde a Grécia Antiga grandes filósofos se dedicam a discutir o problema. Nesse sentido, este trabalho objetiva fazer uma investigação e uma análise da relação entre a verdade e a felicidade presente na filosofia agostiniana, em sua relação com a tradição filosófica pagã. Na filosofia greco-romana temos Platão, para quem a felicidade é a harmonia da alma, que se traduz numa vida dedicada a um conhecimento progressivo que aponta para a ideia do bem. Aristóteles entende-a como bemestar ou prosperidade, estes tomados como objetivo último da vida prática. No estoicismo, Cícero concebe a felicidade como a consequência de uma vida pautada na razão, na vontade, e Sêneca a define como viver de acordo com a natureza. Por fim, temos Plotino, para quem a felicidade é aquela vida segundo a natureza intelectual da alma humana e que permite o retorno ao Uno. Inicialmente, Agostinho adotou tais posicionamentos, porém, procurou evitar aquilo que foi, para ele, o maior engano de tais filosofias: acreditar que a felicidade seja fruto apenas do esforço pessoal, ou seja, da razão e da vontade humana. E, a partir disso, ele propõe que a verdadeira felicidade se dará somente na posse da verdade-Deus. Nesse sentido, apontaremos os reflexos da filosofia greco-romana na concepção de felicidade do hiponense, como também, os elementos que garantem a originalidade da proposta agostiniana. Para tanto, nossa pesquisa se estrutura nas próprias obras de Agostinho, como Sobre a vida feliz, Solilóquios, Contra os Acadêmicos, Sobre o Livre Arbítrio, Confissões e no Sobre a Trindade, assim como em comentadores do tema em questão.

Despite the wealth of research on Roman interior decoration, little has been said about the use of motifs of arms and armour in domestic contexts. Previous scholarship has generally interpreted such images as representing Roman spoils of war. This study challenges this connection with spoils, looking at a wider range of influences on the development and deployment of motifs of arms. It explores how such motifs could have been interpreted in light of their wider decorative context. Drawing on an extensive catalogue of images in painting, mosaic and stucco dating from 100 BC to 100 AD, this thesis looks at the ways real captured arms were displayed in public and private contexts to assess how closely the domestic decorations mirror these idealised practices. It also explores the influence of Greek culture on Roman decorative motifs, decorative fashions across Mau’s Four Styles, the possible influence of gladiatorial combats on the depiction of arms and begins to assess the extent to which all of these factors may have been involved in interpreting motifs of arms in the Roman home. This allows a more nuanced approach to motifs of arms in decorations, emphasising their flexibility and ambiguity. This study also begins to explore how the location of motifs of arms within the house can impact on how a Roman observer could have interpreted the images, opening up a further avenue of research on motifs of arms and understanding how they were deployed and responded to in Roman domestic contexts.

This study examines the connection between architecture and economy in Mycenaean Greece; it is a deep investigation of economic theory and models of the Mycenaean economy, existing methods for the study of prehistoric architecture, and particular Mycenaean structures. Over the course of the study, I present current thinking on the Mycenaean economy and fundamentally rethink the concept of economic embeddedness and human agency. With a novel theoretical grounding, I present a methodology based in human action to study the intersection of architecture and the Mycenaean economy, and in three detailed case studies, I apply the methodology to the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, the harbor town of Kalamianos in the Corinthia, and the Northeast Extension of Mycenae's fortification wall. I argue that to advance the study of Mycenaean economy and theory, the concept of economic embeddedness, which posits that economic actions and decisions are bounded by larger social concerns, must be rethought. In its place, I offer a theory of complex embeddedness that envisions human action as fluid and cross-cutting traditionally circumscribed categories of economy, society, and polity. This foundation in human action with it links to agency theory helps to move the study of architecture away from the static sociopolitical meaning of the final built form and towards the human processes of construction. Under the guidance of this theory, I envision construction as a form of production in which individuals interact with one another and the material world to build a structure. I ultimately use the term architectural production to label this novel viewpoint. To study architectural production at a range where human actions and agency matter, I advance a methodology that draws together architectural energetics, chaîne opératoire, and tools from the construction management industry. I argue that architectural energetics offers a starting point for studying architectural production, but that existing applications of architectural energetics have placed too much weight on summed labor-costs and macroscale typologies. By reformulating architectural energetics with a focus on the chaîne opératoire, or operational sequence, and by using construction management tools to investigate the dynamic nature of the chaîne opératoire, I propose a method that builds on architectural energetics' basis in labor-costs to explore the temporal and spatial configuration of architectural production. With the method, I reconstruct and detail processes of architectural production, model the ordering of human-centric production tasks and patterns of labor organization, explore timeframes for the completion of structures under different conditions, and isolate how active human agents move through space and time during architectural production. I apply the method to the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, the town of Kalamianos in the Corinthia, and the Northeast Extension of Mycenae's fortification wall. For each, I collate published data and field observations to recreate the structures in 3-D CAD models, profoundly contemplate the entire process of production from the planning stages to the finishing touches, investigate the spatiotemporal configuration of labor during production, and stress the plethora of human choices and actions that occurred in the production of these structures. Finally, I fold my study of each structure into larger topics that engage models of the Mycenaean economy, including decision making and group interactions during architectural production, the creation of architectural monumentality and power, and the administration and compensation of builders. I argue for a networked view of the Mycenaean economy that builds on close range analyses of human acts of production; the acts of architectural production that I stress in this study were a complex and integral part of this networked Mycenaean economy. Four supplementary PDF files are included with this study. They form part of the application of my methodology to the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, the harbor town of Kalamianos in the Corinthia, and the Northeast Extension of Mycenae's fortification wall. The supplementary files (Supplements 1–4) are referenced in Chapter 7. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Classics in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2016. / March 28, 2016. / Architectural Energetics, Architecture, Economic Theory, Greek Bronze Age, Labor, Mycenaean / Includes bibliographical references. / Daniel J. Pullen, Professor Directing Dissertation; John O. Sobanjo, University Representative; Christopher A. Pfaff, Committee Member; James P. Sickinger, Committee Member.

Critics have long remarked on the differences between the Argonautic epics of Apollonius Rhodius and Valerius Flaccus, and have attempted to understand the latter’s reception of the former. This dissertation calls into question the narrative that Valerius rejected Apollonius' characterization of the hero Jason as defective and sought to recuperate it. Evidence such as each poet’s treatment of his literary predecessors, the semantics of key terms important to the genre and to the heroes themselves, and the political cultures in which the two epics were composed, suggests that in each epic the heroic protagonist Jason is put forth as the best of his peers, the Argonauts, and the one most suited to lead them. The differences between the two Jasons is best explained by a difference in literary trends and political realities between the Ptolemaic Kingdom of the 3rd century BCE and the Flavian Dynasty of the late 1st century CE. Contrary to scholarly depictions of Jason in Apollonius Rhodius’ Argonautica as a "failed" hero, his characterization is an evolution of Homeric trends in a Ptolemaic Alexandrian context, including Hellenistic literary sensibilities and the ideology of kingship. Similarly, the Jason of Valerius Flaccus’ Argonautica is best understood not as a rejection of Apollonius’ creation, but as an adaptation of it in light of post-Vergilian literary trends and the ideology of the early Flavian Dynasty, which seized power in a civil war. Therefore, both versions of the Argonautica depict Jason in a way that speaks to their respective eras’ understanding of leadership and what constitutes "the best man." / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Classics in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester 2016. / October 31, 2016. / Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, Flavian, Jason, Ptolemaic, Valerius Flaccus / Includes bibliographical references. / Francis Cairns, Professor Directing Dissertation; David Levenson, University Representative; Trevor Luke, Committee Member; Timothy Stover, Committee Member.

This dissertation examines Roman history during the first centuries BCE and CE through the lens of food. Starting at the end with an exegesis of Juvenal’s Satires, I focus on his main gastronomic stereotypes, foods that distinguish people by class. First, I evaluate the bread, the boar, and the turbot as part of Roman culture in order to determine their veracity as stereotypes. Then, by tracing the changing role of these foods from the late Republic through the early Empire, I consider Juvenal’s underlying message in their use. This method has produced some rather compelling conclusions. The successes of the plebs in acquiring and protecting the frumentatio (free grain distribution) define the history of republican politics and imperial administration. Rather than reading panem et circenses (bread and circuses) as a derogatory statement about the lack of political will among the people, I argue that Juvenal is sarcastically acknowledging the people’s victories and their prudence in avoiding frivolous aspirations. Also, the boar was the quintessential meat of Rome, largely thanks to the market subsidy of the frumentatio. Men like Juvenal’s Virro who wish to emulate the extravagant dinners of Roman cuisine but lack the will or ability to treat their guests equally find the monetization of client services a convenient excuse to practice disparity at the cena recta (formal dinner), a trend which reflects the mounting inadequacies of the institution of patronage and the increasing reliance upon currency and markets. Finally, fish metaphors in literature almost always represent excess, and Juvenal’s specific use of the turbot exemplifies the importance of size to Domitian’s, and his court’s, concept of empire. Likewise, the cenatio (dining-hall) at the Domus Flavia reflects the emperor’s appropriation of absolute authority and jurisdiction. This exploration of gastronomic stereotypes in Juvenal validates and encourages the use of food as a historical lens for detecting fundamental changes in politics, economy, society, and empire. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Classics in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester 2016. / November 7, 2016. / cena recta, Domus Flavia, food and identity, frumentatio, Juvenal, Rome / Includes bibliographical references. / Laurel Fulkerson, Professor Directing Dissertation; David Levenson, University Representative; Trevor Luke, Committee Member; Andrea De Giorgi, Committee Member.

Tyrants play a major role in Greek literature and political philosophy, and occupy a certain prominence on the tragic stage. Many city-states, from Athens to Syracuse to Heraclea on the Black Sea, experienced periods in which tyrants exercised power over political life. The prevalent idea of the Greek experience of tyranny is that it was a bad, undesirable form of government. This study departs from this view and embarks on a reconsideration of tyranny and Greek attitudes toward it by looking at how tyrants are portrayed in sources outside of the ancient political theorists, such as Plato and Aristotle. When we explore accounts of Greek tyrants in the historical sources, we find within them a cacophony of voices, recording different perspectives as well as the variety and hybridity of different models of tyranny. Analyzing this cacophony of voices systematically in a thematic and diachronic study of ancient Greek tyranny reveals the sophistication of attitudes toward tyrants; and demonstrates that writers of historical works recognized forms of tyranny aside from the negative, simplistic model advanced in philosophical discussions. In the end, conceptualizing tyranny as a form of sole rule that is limited neither spatially nor temporally sheds light on the endurance of tyranny throughout the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic eras. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Classics in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2016. / April 25, 2016. / Archaic period, Classical period, historian, tyranny, tyrants / Includes bibliographical references. / James Sickinger, Professor Directing Dissertation; Rafe Blaufarb, University Representative; John Marincola, Committee Member; Jessica Clark, Committee Member.

O objetivo da presente dissertação é investigar um conjunto de pequenos fragmentos de papiros alexandrinos nomeado Acta Alexandrinorum. Os escritos narram episódios referentes à Alexandria nos dois primeiros séculos de Império Romano. Foram, no entanto, encontrados em diferentes locais do Egito, fato que sugere uma moderada circulação dos escritos na região. A hipótese é que um estruturado e coeso grupo de cidadãos alexandrinos do Ginásio, de ascendência grega e origem nobre, utilizaram-se dos escritos para manifestar suas insatisfações ao poder imperial. Pretendiam, com os relatos, criar um clima de resistência aos romanos e, ao mesmo tempo, exaltar a importância de Alexandria naquele universo, delimitando também uma identidade alexandrina restrita aos seus elementos de maior distinção. E mais: desejavam marcar a indignação quanto aos vizinhos judeus, que estariam ameaçando alguns direitos antes restritos ao grupo. Através dos textos, pode-se analisar como a romanização foi recebida e entendida pelos alexandrinos. Além disso, a documentação lança luz sobre elementos diversos da vida cívica e social da cidade e nos permite avaliar a sua importância no contexto imperial. / The aim of this dissertation is to investigate a group of small Alexandrian fragments of papyrus named Acta Alexandrinorum. The texts narrate episodes concerning Alexandria in the two first centuries of Roman Empire. But they were found in different places of Egypt, fact that suggests a moderate circulation of the writings in the region. The hypothesis is that a structured and limited group of Alexandrian citizens from the gymnasium, of Greek ascendance and noble birth, would use the writings to express their feelings of dissatisfaction to the Imperial power. They intended, with the accounts, to create an atmosphere of resistance to the Romans, and at the same time, to exalt the importance of Alexandria in that universe and also, to delimit an Alexandrian identity that should be restricted to their elements of higher distinction. Besides that, they also longed to emphasize the indignation to their Jewish neighbors, which were 8 threatening some rights that were before limited to their group. Through the texts, we can analyze how Romanization was received and understood by the Alexandrians. Besides that, the documents illustrate several elements of the civic and social life of the city and help to evaluate its importance in the imperial context.

O objetivo da presente dissertação é investigar um conjunto de pequenos fragmentos de papiros alexandrinos nomeado Acta Alexandrinorum. Os escritos narram episódios referentes à Alexandria nos dois primeiros séculos de Império Romano. Foram, no entanto, encontrados em diferentes locais do Egito, fato que sugere uma moderada circulação dos escritos na região. A hipótese é que um estruturado e coeso grupo de cidadãos alexandrinos do Ginásio, de ascendência grega e origem nobre, utilizaram-se dos escritos para manifestar suas insatisfações ao poder imperial. Pretendiam, com os relatos, criar um clima de resistência aos romanos e, ao mesmo tempo, exaltar a importância de Alexandria naquele universo, delimitando também uma identidade alexandrina restrita aos seus elementos de maior distinção. E mais: desejavam marcar a indignação quanto aos vizinhos judeus, que estariam ameaçando alguns direitos antes restritos ao grupo. Através dos textos, pode-se analisar como a romanização foi recebida e entendida pelos alexandrinos. Além disso, a documentação lança luz sobre elementos diversos da vida cívica e social da cidade e nos permite avaliar a sua importância no contexto imperial. / The aim of this dissertation is to investigate a group of small Alexandrian fragments of papyrus named Acta Alexandrinorum. The texts narrate episodes concerning Alexandria in the two first centuries of Roman Empire. But they were found in different places of Egypt, fact that suggests a moderate circulation of the writings in the region. The hypothesis is that a structured and limited group of Alexandrian citizens from the gymnasium, of Greek ascendance and noble birth, would use the writings to express their feelings of dissatisfaction to the Imperial power. They intended, with the accounts, to create an atmosphere of resistance to the Romans, and at the same time, to exalt the importance of Alexandria in that universe and also, to delimit an Alexandrian identity that should be restricted to their elements of higher distinction. Besides that, they also longed to emphasize the indignation to their Jewish neighbors, which were 8 threatening some rights that were before limited to their group. Through the texts, we can analyze how Romanization was received and understood by the Alexandrians. Besides that, the documents illustrate several elements of the civic and social life of the city and help to evaluate its importance in the imperial context.

While the Latin version of William of Tyre’s chronicle of the Latin East, Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum, is a valuable tool for modern historians, it was not particularly well-known during the medieval period with only nine copies surviving. However, William’s history did become extremely popular through a translation of the original into Old French, the so-called L’Estoire de Eracles, with fifty-one surviving manuscripts. The Eracles text has been overlooked by scholars who have assumed that it is a simple translation of William’s text, and there has also been little work in to establishing a provenance for the translation or determining the translator’s motives. This thesis seeks to identify the extent to which the Eracles is a simple translation and assess its importance to historians. While, for the most part, the translator is faithful to William’s text, he made alterations throughout. Many are of a stylistic nature, and the translator did not simply abridge William’s text for a new audience. He made several additions that serve to identify him and his audience. In particular, he regularly added background material on French crusaders, and on events in France, including additional information not found in any other source. On occasion the translator alters William’s criticism of certain individuals and gives a very different version of events that may be more accurate. The major difficulty with studying the Eracles text is the fact that the nineteenth-century editions were reliant upon a limited number of manuscripts. There has been little work on these manuscripts and no clear understanding of the relationships between these manuscripts. This thesis also seeks to tackle this problem by presenting a critical edition of six sample chapters that takes into account all the surviving manuscripts and by establishing the relationships between these manuscripts.