Thesis (M. Sc. (Geography)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / Great interests in the geographical dimensions of poverty, food security, natural resources such as land and water, and livelihoods have been motivated by global efforts of reducing poverty and food insecurity, as part of the millennium development agenda. The achievement of household food security is a major concern facing the world at large, including South Africa due to the lack of land and water resources availability and accessibility. The study aimed at evaluating the potential reuse of greywater to improve household food security in two villages of Fetakgomo Local Municipality. The objectives of the study were to establish background characteristics, determine household food accessibility and availability, assess the reuse of greywater in relation to home gardening activities, ascertain the perceptions on greywater reuse and lastly to determine the household food security status of the households. The study adapted a mixed research approach and a 4% sample size was used. Ninety five and seventy eight households were randomly selected for Ga-Seroka and Ga-Nkwana villages, respectively. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire and the results were analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version-23 software. General Household Survey (GHS) in combination with Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) were used to assess household food security status of the two villages. The key results revealed that background characteristics of importance on greywater reuse include household size, educational level and employment status even though they varied in these two areas. Accessibility and availability of food was found to be more of a challenge in Ga-Seroka village than in Ga-Nkwana village. Respondents from Ga-Seroka village reused their greywater more as they drained it directly into their gardens. According to the HFIAS classification measure, 85% and 73% of households were categorised as least food insecure, 15% and 26% as medium food insecure and 0% and 1% as severely food insecure in Ga-Nkwana and Ga-Seroka villages respectively. Ga-Seroka village respondents preferred to reuse their greywater more often as compared to respondents in Ga-Nkwana village and were not reluctant to use it in their gardens. In conclusion, reuse of greywater has a potential to improve household food security. There is a need for the government to subsidize the households with incentives such as quality seeds and fertilizers in order to enhance their productivity and thus improving their household food security. Keywords: Food security, availability, accessibility, land, water, Fetakgomo Local Municipality, greywater reuse. / National Research Foundation (NRF)

This study was undertaken to examine the feasibilty of a low-cost aerobic system to treat greywater for reuse.Its purpose was to provide a system that would be easy to maintain, flexible and be affordable for households and small communities in developing countries. This thesis outlines and evaluates the key biological and chemical hazards associated with greywater reuse. It discusses the performance of a variety of wastewater treatment options in use. It presents details of the components of the greywater system,namely, an aerobic grease trap and slow sand filter. Reference is made to the evaporation and treatment bed and ultraviolet disinfection components, but these are not examined. The incorporation of vermitechnology in the preliminary stages of the system for reduction of organics in greywater is reviewed. This study takes the traditional approach to water quality assessment with the measurement of physical, chemical and biological indicators. Assessment of the system involved examining the input characteristics of the greywater, monitoring the vermiculture system and sampling the liquid discharge from the aerobic grease trap and slow sand filter for analysis of the quality indicators. The results obtained under the framework of this study have provided recommendations for further use of the aerobic grease trap and slow sand filter, while propsing an approach for an appropriate long-term monitoring program. / Master of Engineering (Hons)

Australia is one of the driest continents in the world with changing climatic conditions continuing to put a strain on potable water sources. The use of water saving technologies such as greywater systems in residential properties is an important water conservation tool in order to reduce the consumption of the finite potable water resources in Australia. To this end, Master Builders Association Victoria with the assistance of RMIT University investigated the current barriers that builders face with regard to the installation of greywater systems in residential properties. Builders like other property and construction professionals have a part to play in promoting the use of sustainable technologies. The main aims of the project were to firstly find out or identify barriers that are inhibiting builders from installing greywater systems and secondly to identify and formulate strategies to reduce or eliminate the barriers identified. The main barriers for builders are; high cost, government regulations, lack of builder awareness or knowledge, and low client demand. The potential solutions for the reduction or elimination of the barriers identified as part of the research include; economic and reliable greywater systems, creation of a website with link on greywater systems and educating the general public.

The widespread practice in Latin America of separating greywater from blackwater at the domestic level lends itself to the application of Ecological Sanitation, or Ecosan. In this research simple, low-cost subsurface flow wetlands, or reedbeds, were investigated not only for their potential in treating the greywater component but also to evaluate their acceptance as an appropriate Ecosan technology in rural Central America. The hypothesis for this thesis is that Ecological Sanitation, namely via reedbeds for the treatment of greywater can improve sanitation in rural Central America. The first aim of this research determined that untreated greywater was having a significant negative impact on the water quality of the local streams of Monteverde in Costa Rica (the site of this research) and that the associated public health risks will continue to increase in line with population growth. Local residents expressed strong dissatisfaction with the current situation and were supportive of any means to improve it. The second aim of this research was to determine if reedbeds designed according to the principles of Ecosan could provide a healthier, affordable and more sustainable sanitation alternative suitable for rural areas. As a result five case study reedbed systems were designed and installed. All these reedbeds made use of locally available materials and incorporated low-maintenance design features, and research with a local plant species determined a robust macrophyte suitable for use in these systems. The ability of low-cost reedbed systems to successfully treat greywater was demonstrated. The Costa Rican guidelines for wastewater reuse were found to be overly restrictive in regards to fecal coliform limits (<1,000cfu/100mL) and may inhibit the wider uptake of reedbed systems if enforced. Despite this the uptake of the reedbed technology was strong and more than ten systems were installed in Costa Rica as a result of this research. An innovative environmental services contract, the first of its kind in Costa Rica, was developed to ensure on going funding for operation and maintenance of a four-household reedbed system. The third aim was to specifically investigate the use of waste plastic (PET) bottle segments as an alternative media in reedbeds to conventional crushed rock, or gravel. Twelve mini-reedbeds, or cells, incorporating PET media and plants as the two variables, were monitored through wet and dry seasons. This experiment demonstrated that reedbeds incorporating PET segments were able to achieve comparable removal of fecal coliform and BOD when compared to conventional media reedbeds, and at a significantly reduced cost. The local plant species Coix lacryma-jobi enhanced the performance of all reedbeds, most notably in the PET-based reedbeds, which was attributed to the considerably greater root biomass achieved in these systems as compared to conventional media systems. This research has demonstrated that reedbeds incorporating simple, low-maintenance design features are able to provide an affordable and appropriate technology for the treatment of greywater in rural Latin America.

Thesis (M.S.)--California Polytechnic State University, 2009. / Title from PDF title page; viewed on July 2, 2009. "May 2009." "In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree [of] Master of Science in Architecture." "Presented to the faculty of California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo." Major professor: Jens Pohl, Ph.D. Includes bibliographical references (p. 99-105).

Across the world, it is becoming increasingly obvious that we must change the way we live as human beings. Our population is over seven billion, and the natural world simply cannot sustain this large of a population unless we learn to live within its means. Buildings, the structures that house us and provide us with shelter every day, are responsible for nearly half of the energy consumption across the United States (eai.gov, 2008). As cities continue to grow and available land diminishes, buildings will only get taller and consume even more energy. This energy requires vast amounts of water, so as our population grows, we are using more energy and more water, two of the most critical components of human prosperity. Renewable and sustainable energy production is now more of a reality than ever, especially as people become aware of the impending shortage of natural resources.I propose to offer a modified renewable energy source in a new environment. The use of hydropower turbines for renewable energy generation is something common to many places across the globe, but the use of hydropower turbines in a building is not. In this paper I propose a system that utilizes greywater from high-rise residential buildings to create energy with hydropower turbines at the base of the building. Calculations show the system can produce energy, but improvements and changes need to be considered for this to be a commercially viable renewable energy source.

Investigation and research into the Persian Gardens, leading this project into a step that these World Heritage Sites might have been known as sustainable construction, but the fact that water scarcity of their region is a serious threaten for all these amazing Gardens. Thus, enhancing and improving these gardens by merging, adding and adapting todays technologies can make them considered as constructions with water and energy conservation design. Based on nowadays world environment concerns, recognizing renewable and non-renewable sources of energies in a region or site can cause a miracle. Since, almost all Persian Gardens located in regions with arid and semi-arid climate, water poverty as a biggest issue and nonrenewable energy should be included as a problematic concern. There are many available active and passive strategies that can be applied in these heritage sites which decrease water consumption either directly or indirectly. Such as water harvesting, greywater reuse, photovoltaic panels and material changes. Water known as a vital element of each garden for irrigation purposes, but in Persian Garden water is more than a functional element. Thus, finding a way to provide and recycle water beside the underground sources is necessary. Subterranean, springs and wells are resources of water for Persian gardens which renew so slowly or non-renew these days. Being so close to a city with considerable population lunches and idea of using greywater for irrigation in these gardens. In this research, the doable options for energy conservation design for these sites will be discussed, then comparing some case studies in all over world where greywater reusing water system for irrigation is happening will be next step. In conclusion, greywater reusing system in urban scale in order to irrigate a filed or garden will be investigate on a Shazdeh Garden as a main case study of this research.

não potáveis vêm ao encontro das premissas de sustentabilidade e ao conceito de conservação de água. Sistemas de reúso de águas cinzas e sistemas de coleta e aproveitamento de águas pluviais devem seguir quatro critérios: segurança higiênica, estética, proteção ambiental e viabilidade técnica e econômica. As águas cinzas e as águas pluviais devidamente tratadas podem ser utilizadas no consumo não-potável em edificações como em bacias sanitárias, em torneiras de jardins, na irrigação de gramados e plantas, na lavagem de veículos, na lavagem de roupas, na limpeza de calçadas, na limpeza de pátios, na produção de concretos, na compactação de solos, na recarga de aqüíferos e no uso ornamental como em chafarizes e em espelhos d\'água desde que sua utilização não ofereça riscos à saúde de seus usuários. As águas cinzas podem ser divididas em dois grupos: águas cinzas escuras e águas cinzas claras. As águas cinzas claras são as águas residuárias originadas de banheiras, chuveiros, lavatórios e máquinas de lavar roupas. Já as águas cinzas escuras incluem ainda as águas residuárias provenientes da pia da cozinha e máquina de lavar pratos. O efluente oriundo de vasos sanitários não é denominado de águas cinzas, mas águas negras. A composição das águas cinzas é principalmente influenciada pelo comportamento do usuário, podendo também apresentar variação conforme a região onde a cultura, os costumes, as instalações e a utilização de produtos químicos são diferentes. Microrganismos patogênicos podem ser encontrados nas águas cinzas e nas águas pluviais como, por exemplo, a Escherichia Coli, que é comumente utilizada como indicador de contaminação fecal. Assim, o tratamento das águas cinzas e das águas pluviais deve ser praticado com o intuito de eliminar a matéria orgânica e remover ou inativar os microrganismos patôgenos presentes nessas águas, evitando-se o contato humano direto com águas poluídas e a disseminação de doenças. Alguns cuidados com o uso de sistemas de reúso de águas cinzas e sistemas de aproveitamento de águas pluviais devem ser tomados, a saber: verificar a qualidade da água tratada, fazer manutenção adequada ao sistema, dispor de operação eficaz e segura ao sistema e ao operador, verificar a não ocorrência de conexões cruzadas no sistema de distribuição, fazer uso de avisos com indicação água não potável, fazer uso de tubulações de cores e de conexões diferenciadas, de modo que o sistema ofereça segurança a seus usuários. Este projeto visa a caracterização e o tratamento de águas cinzas e de águas pluviais para consumo não potável em edificações. A primeira etapa do projeto destinou-se à caracterização das águas cinzas residenciais através de análises físicas, químicas e bacteriológicas para a verificação de sua qualidade. A segunda etapa foi dividida em dois grupos: tratamento das águas cinzas residenciais e tratamento das águas pluviais. Neste trabalho foi abordada a caracterização e o tratamento das águas cinzas claras, isto é, as águas residuárias oriundas de chuveiros, de lavatórios e da máquina de lavar roupas. O tratamento das águas pluviais se deu com base nos resultados de caracterização obtidos em May (2004), anexo 2. Para o tratamento das águas cinzas fez-se uso de tratamento biológico aeróbio e para o tratamento das águas pluviais, filtração e desinfecção com cloro. Alguns dos parâmetros analisados durante o período de monitoramento do sistema de tratamento de águas cinzas obtiveram uma redução bastante significativa, por exemplo: cor aparente - 95,1%, turbidez - 98,2%, SST - 94,1%, DBO - 93,4%, DQO - 86,3%, COT - 84,9%, Coliformes termotolerantes - 99,8% e Coliformes totais - 97,8%. Durante os ensaios foi mantido um residual mínimo e máximo de cloro de 0,8 1,7 mg/L. No sistema de tratamento de águas pluviais alguns parâmetros analisados durante o período de monitoramento obtiveram as seguintes reduções: cor aparente - 62%, turbidez - 75,7%, Coliformes termotolerantes - 100% e Coliformes totais - 100%. Durante os ensaios foi mantido um residual mínimo e máximo de cloro de 0,6 1,2 mg/L. Baseado nos resultados das análises realizadas e nos resultados obtidos com o tratamento dessas águas, seus usos para fins não potáveis devem ser estimulados. / The reuse of greywater and the rainwater catchment for non potable uses meets the premises of sustainability and the concept of water conservation. Properly conceived greywater reuse systems and rainwater catchment systems should follow four basic criteria: hygienic reliability, aesthetics, environmental protection and technical/economic feasibility. The greywater and the rainwater, when properly treated, can be used for consumption at buildings, for non potable purposes such as flushing toilet bowls, floors and backyards cleaning, garden irrigation, ornamental uses as in water mirrors and water fountains as long as its use avoid any risk to users health. Greywater can be divided in two groups: dark greywater and light greywater. The greywater is originated from bathtubs, showers, lavatories and washer machines. Dark greywater, has its origin from kitchen lavatory and dishwasher machine. Water from toilet bowls is not called greywater but wastewater. Greywater composition is mainly influenced by user habits and usually results on variations depending on the region, the culture, the costumes, the installation and the kind of chemical products used. Pathogenic microorganisms can be found on greywater and on rainwater as, for example, Escherichia Coli, commonly used as faecal contamination indicator. Greywater and rainwater treatment should be taken so that organic material can be removed or pathogenic microorganisms found can be inactivated, avoiding direct human contact and disease dissemination. Care on processing greywater reuse systems and rainwater catchment systems should be taken, as: verifying treated water quality, appropriated system maintenance, secure and efficient operation for the operator and for the system, the avoidance of crossing conections on distribution system, usage of alert signs about non potable water, different colors and different connection dimensions so that the reuse system offers secure operation for its users. This paperwork aims to the characterization and the treatment of greywater for non potable use in buildings, divided in two sections. The first section of the project aimed the residential greywater characterization through fisical, chemical and bacteriological analysis for quality evaluation. The second section was divided in two groups: the treatment of residential greywater and the treatment of collected rainwater. This project focus on the characterization and on the treatment of light greywater, defined as water collected from showers, lavatories and washer machines. Rainwater treatment was based on the results achieved from May (2004), annex #2. Filtration and chloride disinfection treatment was applied on rainwater and aerobic biological treatment was applied on greywater. Some of the parameters analysed during the monitoring period of the greywater treatment system, achieved a significant reduction as, for example: color: - 95.1%; turbidity: - 98.2%; TSS: - 94.1%; BOD: - 93.4%; COD: - 86.3%; TOC: - 84.9%; Thermotolerants Coliforms: - 99.8%; e Total Coliforms: - 97.8%. During the analysis, the residual chloride was kept on 0.8 to 1.7 mg/L range. On rainwater treatment system some parameters analysed during the monitoring period achieved the following reductions: color: - 62%; turbidity: - 75.7%; Thermotolerants Coliforms: - 100%; and Total Coliforms: - 100%. During the analysis, the residual chloride was kept on 0.6 to 1.2 mg/L range. Based on the results from the water analysis and on the results from the resulting treated water, its non potable uses should be stimulated.

não potáveis vêm ao encontro das premissas de sustentabilidade e ao conceito de conservação de água. Sistemas de reúso de águas cinzas e sistemas de coleta e aproveitamento de águas pluviais devem seguir quatro critérios: segurança higiênica, estética, proteção ambiental e viabilidade técnica e econômica. As águas cinzas e as águas pluviais devidamente tratadas podem ser utilizadas no consumo não-potável em edificações como em bacias sanitárias, em torneiras de jardins, na irrigação de gramados e plantas, na lavagem de veículos, na lavagem de roupas, na limpeza de calçadas, na limpeza de pátios, na produção de concretos, na compactação de solos, na recarga de aqüíferos e no uso ornamental como em chafarizes e em espelhos d\'água desde que sua utilização não ofereça riscos à saúde de seus usuários. As águas cinzas podem ser divididas em dois grupos: águas cinzas escuras e águas cinzas claras. As águas cinzas claras são as águas residuárias originadas de banheiras, chuveiros, lavatórios e máquinas de lavar roupas. Já as águas cinzas escuras incluem ainda as águas residuárias provenientes da pia da cozinha e máquina de lavar pratos. O efluente oriundo de vasos sanitários não é denominado de águas cinzas, mas águas negras. A composição das águas cinzas é principalmente influenciada pelo comportamento do usuário, podendo também apresentar variação conforme a região onde a cultura, os costumes, as instalações e a utilização de produtos químicos são diferentes. Microrganismos patogênicos podem ser encontrados nas águas cinzas e nas águas pluviais como, por exemplo, a Escherichia Coli, que é comumente utilizada como indicador de contaminação fecal. Assim, o tratamento das águas cinzas e das águas pluviais deve ser praticado com o intuito de eliminar a matéria orgânica e remover ou inativar os microrganismos patôgenos presentes nessas águas, evitando-se o contato humano direto com águas poluídas e a disseminação de doenças. Alguns cuidados com o uso de sistemas de reúso de águas cinzas e sistemas de aproveitamento de águas pluviais devem ser tomados, a saber: verificar a qualidade da água tratada, fazer manutenção adequada ao sistema, dispor de operação eficaz e segura ao sistema e ao operador, verificar a não ocorrência de conexões cruzadas no sistema de distribuição, fazer uso de avisos com indicação água não potável, fazer uso de tubulações de cores e de conexões diferenciadas, de modo que o sistema ofereça segurança a seus usuários. Este projeto visa a caracterização e o tratamento de águas cinzas e de águas pluviais para consumo não potável em edificações. A primeira etapa do projeto destinou-se à caracterização das águas cinzas residenciais através de análises físicas, químicas e bacteriológicas para a verificação de sua qualidade. A segunda etapa foi dividida em dois grupos: tratamento das águas cinzas residenciais e tratamento das águas pluviais. Neste trabalho foi abordada a caracterização e o tratamento das águas cinzas claras, isto é, as águas residuárias oriundas de chuveiros, de lavatórios e da máquina de lavar roupas. O tratamento das águas pluviais se deu com base nos resultados de caracterização obtidos em May (2004), anexo 2. Para o tratamento das águas cinzas fez-se uso de tratamento biológico aeróbio e para o tratamento das águas pluviais, filtração e desinfecção com cloro. Alguns dos parâmetros analisados durante o período de monitoramento do sistema de tratamento de águas cinzas obtiveram uma redução bastante significativa, por exemplo: cor aparente - 95,1%, turbidez - 98,2%, SST - 94,1%, DBO - 93,4%, DQO - 86,3%, COT - 84,9%, Coliformes termotolerantes - 99,8% e Coliformes totais - 97,8%. Durante os ensaios foi mantido um residual mínimo e máximo de cloro de 0,8 1,7 mg/L. No sistema de tratamento de águas pluviais alguns parâmetros analisados durante o período de monitoramento obtiveram as seguintes reduções: cor aparente - 62%, turbidez - 75,7%, Coliformes termotolerantes - 100% e Coliformes totais - 100%. Durante os ensaios foi mantido um residual mínimo e máximo de cloro de 0,6 1,2 mg/L. Baseado nos resultados das análises realizadas e nos resultados obtidos com o tratamento dessas águas, seus usos para fins não potáveis devem ser estimulados. / The reuse of greywater and the rainwater catchment for non potable uses meets the premises of sustainability and the concept of water conservation. Properly conceived greywater reuse systems and rainwater catchment systems should follow four basic criteria: hygienic reliability, aesthetics, environmental protection and technical/economic feasibility. The greywater and the rainwater, when properly treated, can be used for consumption at buildings, for non potable purposes such as flushing toilet bowls, floors and backyards cleaning, garden irrigation, ornamental uses as in water mirrors and water fountains as long as its use avoid any risk to users health. Greywater can be divided in two groups: dark greywater and light greywater. The greywater is originated from bathtubs, showers, lavatories and washer machines. Dark greywater, has its origin from kitchen lavatory and dishwasher machine. Water from toilet bowls is not called greywater but wastewater. Greywater composition is mainly influenced by user habits and usually results on variations depending on the region, the culture, the costumes, the installation and the kind of chemical products used. Pathogenic microorganisms can be found on greywater and on rainwater as, for example, Escherichia Coli, commonly used as faecal contamination indicator. Greywater and rainwater treatment should be taken so that organic material can be removed or pathogenic microorganisms found can be inactivated, avoiding direct human contact and disease dissemination. Care on processing greywater reuse systems and rainwater catchment systems should be taken, as: verifying treated water quality, appropriated system maintenance, secure and efficient operation for the operator and for the system, the avoidance of crossing conections on distribution system, usage of alert signs about non potable water, different colors and different connection dimensions so that the reuse system offers secure operation for its users. This paperwork aims to the characterization and the treatment of greywater for non potable use in buildings, divided in two sections. The first section of the project aimed the residential greywater characterization through fisical, chemical and bacteriological analysis for quality evaluation. The second section was divided in two groups: the treatment of residential greywater and the treatment of collected rainwater. This project focus on the characterization and on the treatment of light greywater, defined as water collected from showers, lavatories and washer machines. Rainwater treatment was based on the results achieved from May (2004), annex #2. Filtration and chloride disinfection treatment was applied on rainwater and aerobic biological treatment was applied on greywater. Some of the parameters analysed during the monitoring period of the greywater treatment system, achieved a significant reduction as, for example: color: - 95.1%; turbidity: - 98.2%; TSS: - 94.1%; BOD: - 93.4%; COD: - 86.3%; TOC: - 84.9%; Thermotolerants Coliforms: - 99.8%; e Total Coliforms: - 97.8%. During the analysis, the residual chloride was kept on 0.8 to 1.7 mg/L range. On rainwater treatment system some parameters analysed during the monitoring period achieved the following reductions: color: - 62%; turbidity: - 75.7%; Thermotolerants Coliforms: - 100%; and Total Coliforms: - 100%. During the analysis, the residual chloride was kept on 0.6 to 1.2 mg/L range. Based on the results from the water analysis and on the results from the resulting treated water, its non potable uses should be stimulated.

<p>The Hull Street Integrated Housing Project, in Kimberley, is one of the projects supported by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Sida, in South Africa. The vision of the</p><p>project is to provide low cost housing for the people of Kimberley. As a way of ensuring sustainability, the project adopts the Ecological sanitation (Ecosan) approach where urine and</p><p>faeces are separated from the source.</p><p>The concept of Ecosan is new to many people around the world. To make the concept workable and acceptable effective implementation strategies are required.</p><p>At the Hull Street, after the first of the four phases 144 unit houses have been completed all fitted</p><p>with the UDS. Urine from the UDS as well as the greywater from the kitchen and bathroom are connected to infiltrate into the ground. This arrangement is called the “quick-fix”. The faeces from</p><p>the houses are sent to the compost yard for composting so that the residents could use the compost in their gardens.</p><p>This study which involves interview with some selected workers and residents in Hull Street</p><p>focuses on the modus operandi of the Ecosan unit of the Hull Street project with special emphasis on the methods of human excreta disposal and education strategies.</p>