Tesis por compendio / [ES] Un porcentaje significativo de la energía se destina a la producción de Agua Caliente Sanitaria (ACS) en el sector comercial y residencial. Además, la mayor parte de la energía que contiene el agua se desperdicia en el ambiente tras su uso. Las bombas de calor han sido identificadas por su capacidad de producir ACS con una alta eficiencia y son una gran alternativa hacia la descarbonización de las ciudades. Además, son capaces de utilizar como fuente de calor, el calor contenido en el agua que actualmente se desperdicia. Sin embargo, la aplicación del uso de bombas de calor para ACS recuperando el calor de las aguas residuales presenta unas características diferentes a las usuales en bombas de calor. Por tanto, es necesario un análisis del problema más profundo y se require mayor investigación al respecto con el fin de lograr un desarrollo eficiente de la misma: 1. Un diseño de bomba de calor capaz de operar con alta eficiencia ante los grandes saltos de temperatura que tienen lugar en esta aplicación (ACS). 2. Un diseño de bomba de calor capaz de operar con alta eficiencia ante saltos de temperatura del fluido secundario variables (recuperación de calor). 3. La integración de esta bomba de calor en un sistema de ACS completo (estrategias de recuperación de calor, componentes, tamaño y estrategia de control). Normalmente, los ciclos transcríticos han sido considerados como una de las mejores soluciones para la producción de ACS (donde se tienen grandes saltos de temperatura en el agua, 10-60°C). Sin embargo, este tipo de ciclo presenta dos desventajas principales, la necesidad de altas presiones en la instalación y la dependencia de la eficiencia con el salto de temperatura del agua en el condensador. Sin embargo, los ciclos subcríticos han demostrado un gran potencial para saltos de temperatura del agua variables si se aplica un control del subenfriamiento adecuado. El objetivo de esta tesis es investigar la bomba de calor agua-agua más eficiente trabajando con un ciclo de refrigerante subcrítico para la producción de ACS utilizando como fuente de calor el calor disponible en las aguas residuales (a baja-media temperatura) para determinar el sistema más eficiente para este tipo de aplicación. El trabajo se divide en dos partes diferenciadas: ¿ Diseño de la bomba de calor El desarrollo de la bomba de calor es una continuación del trabajo realizado en la tesis de M. Pitarch [1]. En dicha tesis, se investigó el papel del subenfriamiento en una bomba de calor subcrítica para la apliación de ACS. Se desarrolló un prototipo de bomba de calor con el diseño de dos configuraciones distintas en función del modo en el que se realizaba el subenfriamiento. Los resultados permitieron concluir que este tipo de bombas de calor (subcríticas) eran capaces de operar con eficiencias similares a las de las bombas de calor basadas en ciclos transcríticos si se opera con un grado de subenfriamiento óptimo. Sin embargo, en ambas configuraciones se requiere un componente más que en las bombas de calor convencionales. En esta tesis, se ha realizado un estudio y análisis teórico de la bomba de calor. Se ha desarrollado e implementado una estrategia de control para el subenfriamiento y se ha construído el prototipo de bomba de calor propuesto en [1]. De todo este trabajo se ha obtenido el diseño de bomba de calor basada en ciclos subcríticos más interesante para este tipo de aplicaciones. ¿ Diseño e integración de la Bomba de Calor y el sistema de ACS La integración del prototipo seleccionado en un sistema para la producción de ACS con recuperación del calor de las aguas residuales ha sido analizada.El sistema más simple y eficiente necesario para este tipo de aplicaciones (producción de ACS con recuperación de calor de las aguas grises) se compone de un intercambiador de calor (recuperador), una bomba de calor con subenfriamiento optimizado y dos depósitos de almacenamiento. / [CA] Un percentatge significatiu de l'energia es destina a la producció d'Aigua Calenta Sanitària (ACS) en el sector comercial i residencial. A més, la major part de l'energia que conté l'aigua es malgasta en l'ambient després del seu ús. Les bombes de calor han sigut identificades per la seua capacitat de produir ACS amb una alta eficiència i són una gran alternativa cap a la descarbonització de les ciutats. A més, són capaços d'utilitzar com a font de calor, el calor contingut en l'aigua que actualment es desaprofita. Contribuint així, a aconseguir un sector energètic més respectuós amb el Medi Ambient. No obstant això, l'aplicació de l'ús de bombes de calor per a ACS recuperant el calor de les aigües residuals presenta unes característiques diferents de les usuals en bombes de calor. Per tant, és necessari una anàlisi del problema més profund i es requereix una major investigació al respecte amb la finalitat d'aconseguir una alta eficiència: 1.Un disseny de bomba de calor capaç d'operar amb alta eficiència davant dels grans salts de temperatura presents en aquesta aplicació (ACS). 2.Un disseny de bomba de calor capaç d'operar amb alta eficiència davant de salts de temperatura del fluid secundari variables (recuperació de calor). 3.La integració d'aquesta bomba de calor en un sistema d'ACS complet (estratègies de recuperació de calor, components, grandària i estratègia de control). Normalment, els cicles transcrítics han sigut considerats com una de les millors solucions per a la producció d'ACS (on es tenen grans salts de temperatura en l'aigua, 10-60°C). No obstant això, aquest tipus de cicle presenta dos desavantatges principals, la necessitat d'altes pressions en la instal·lació i la dependència de l'eficiència amb el salt de temperatura de l'aigua en el condensador i evaporador. L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi és investigar la bomba de calor aigua-aigua més eficient treballant amb un cicle de refrigerant subcrític per a la producció d'ACS utilitzant com a font de calor el calor disponible en les aigües residuals (a baixa-mitja temperatura) per a determinar el sistema més eficient en aquest tipus d'aplicació. El treball es dividix en: ¿ Disseny de la bomba de calor El desenvolupament de la bomba de calor és una continuació del treball realitzat en la tesi de M. Pitarch [1]. En aquella tesi, es va investigar el paper del subrefredament en una bomba de calor subcrítica per a l'apliació d'ACS. Es va desenvolupar un prototip de bomba de calor amb el disseny de dues configuracions distintes en funció de la manera en què es realitzava el subrefredament. Els resultats van permetre concloure que aquests tipus de bombes de calor (subcrítiques) eren capaços d'operar amb eficiències semblants a les de les bombes de calor basades en cicles transcrítics si s'opera amb un grau de subrefredament òptim. No obstant això, en ambdues configuracions es requereix un component més que en les bombes de calor convencionals. En la present tesi, es va realitzar un estudi i anàlisi teòric de la bomba de calor. Es va desenvolupar i implementar una estratègia de control per al subrefredament i es va construir el prototip de bomba de calor proposat en [1]. De tot aquest treball s'ha obtingut el disseny de bomba de calor basada en cicles subcrítics més interessant per aquest tipus d'aplicacions. ¿Disseny i integració de la Bomba de Calor i el sistema d'ACS La integració del prototip seleccionat en un sistema per a la producció d'ACS amb recuperació de el calor de el calor de les aigües residuals ha sigut analitzada.El sistema més simple i eficient necessari per a aquest tipus d'aplicacions (producció d'ACS amb recuperació de calor provinent d'aigües grisas) està compost per un bescanviador de calor (recuperador), una bomba subrefredada i dos depòsits d'emmagatzemament. / [EN] A significant percentage of energy is destined to produce Domestic Hot Water (DHW) within the building sector. Furthermore, most of that energy contained in the water is wasted to the ambient after its use. Heat pumps have been clearly identified as an efficient technology for DHW production, and as a main vector towards future de-carbonization of cities. In addition, they could use the heat from the wastewater as a heat source. Thus, contributing in two ways towards a more environmentally friendly energetic sector. However, the use of heat pumps for DHW recovering heat from wastewater faces several challenges that require further analysis and development: 1. A heat pump design capable to operate with high performance when variable secondary temperature lifts at the heat sink take place. 2. A heat pump design capable to operate with high performance when variable secondary temperature lifts at the heat source take place. 3. The integration of the heat pump within a system (heat recovery strategies, components, sizing, operation strategy). Usually, transcritical cycles have been considered the most suitable cycle for DHW production (high temperature lifts of the heat sink, 10-60°C). However, this cycle involves several drawbacks as for instance the requirement of high pressures in the installation or a significant reduction of the performance with the increase of water inlet temperature at the condenser. Instead, subcritical cycles have demonstrated great potential for DHW applications if a proper control of subcooling is performed. The objective of this thesis is to investigate the most efficient water-to-water heat pump working with a subcritical cycle for DHW production using as a heat source wasted heat at medium-low temperature and to determine the most efficient system based on heat pumps for this application. The work is divided in two differentiated parts: ¿ Heat pump concept This development is a continuation from the PhD work of M. Pitarch [1]. In that PhD work, the role of the subcooling in the performance of a subcritical heat pump for DHW applications was investigated. Two different configurations of a heat pump prototype were designed based on the way subcooling was made. The results showed that a subcooling optimized subcritical heat pump was able to provide comparable performance than present HPs employing transcritical cycles. However, both configurations require one more component than usual heat pumps. Thus, a new prototype based only on the typical components (compressor, condenser, expansion valve and evaporator) was proposed as future work. In this thesis, a theoretic analysis of the heat pump was done. A subcooling control methodology was developed and tested. The proposed prototype in [1] has been built and characterized. From all the results, the most convenient heat pump design was obtained. ¿ Integral Heat pump-DHW system The integration of the most convenient heat pump prototype within a system for the DHW production based on heat recovery from wastewater has been analyzed. The research has included the development of a model of the entire system in Trnsys and the optimization of the main components of the system: their sizing and their operation with the objective of reaching the maximum global efficiency of the complete system. Due to the complexity of the problem, the analysis was performed in three main steps: first, a study of the direct heat exchange,second, an study focusing on the condenser side, that is, the consideration of an infinite heat source (large availability of sewage water for instance) and third, the focus was done on the evaporator side. That is, the optimization of the complete system in which a finite heat source is considered (grey waters collected from the building for instance). The simplest and most efficient system required in DHW production and heat recuperation from wastewater has been determined. / Esta tesis se enmarca dentro del proyecto “APROVECHAMIENTO DEL CALOR RESIDUAL A BAJA TEMPERATURA MEDIANTE BOMBAS DE CALOR PARA LA PRODUCCION DE AGUA CALIENTE” a través de una beca FPI del Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad. / Hervás Blasco, E. (2020). Aprovechamiento del calor residual a baja temperatura mediante bombas de calor para la producción de agua caliente [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/137776 / Compendio

In recent decades, most countries of the world have experienced a shortage of water and increase its rate of consumption. Today, every country in the world are interested in this problem by trying to find alternatives to address this shortage. One solution is reuse greywater (GW) for irrigation after treatment. GW is all water generated from Household except toilet water. The risks associated with the reuse of these waters are the presence of pathogens that can infect humans, animals and plants. In this thesis focused on studying treatment by slow sand filtration and the survival of representatives of pathogens, such as E. Coli, P. aeruginosa , E. Faecalis and Bacteriophage MS2 which could be found in the greywater. The study factors was a physico-chemicals factors such as; temperature (6±2,23±2,42±2°c), salinity (1.75 and 3.5% Nacl), oxygen (aerobic and anaerobic condition), nutrient ( rich media , 50%: 50% salt and poor media ), light with photocatalysis ( UV and Visible lights) and slow sand filter (Egyptian desert sand and swimming pool sand). A combination of high temperature, sunlight and photocatlysis are mainly responsible for the rapid decline of bacteria and MS2 coliphage. Slow sand filter have clearly less influence on the survival of bacteria in the greywater, but it effective to decline turbidity and COD for short times.

A disparidade entre o crescimento populacional e a oferta de água potável apresenta grandes riscos de abastecimento em grandes centros urbanos. A utilização desse recurso em residências é diferenciada em uso potável e não potável. A utilização de água potável para finalidades menos nobres leva à escassez hídrica local em menor prazo, necessitando de busca de água cada vez mais longe, encarecendo o valor desse bem aos usuários. O uso não potável deveria ser suprido por fontes alternativas, como águas pluviais ou água de reúso. Em residências, muitas vezes o volume de água não potável é suprido pela produção de água cinza, necessitando de tratamento para que seu uso não ofereça riscos aos usuários. Sistemas de tratamento tipo wetlands podem ser uma alternativa economicamente viável em locais com disponibilidade de área, tendo como atrativos a independência de energia elétrica para o processo, ausência da necessidade de produtos químicos e forte apelo estético e ambiental. O presente trabalho visou avaliar a viabilidade técnica de sistemas tipo wetlands no tratamento de água cinza, determinando a remoção de material orgânico, a constante de remoção desse substrato, determinar as taxas de remoções de nitrogênio e fósforo e avaliar a eficiência na remoção de indicadores de contaminação fecal em um sistema tipo wetlands de fluxo subsuperficial horizontal cultivado em policultura. O sistema tipo wetlands apresentou remoção média de matéria orgânica próxima a 60% nos para os parâmetros DBO, DQO e COT, possibilitando: K20 DBO = 0,40; K20 DQO = 0,34; e K20 COT 0,30. As taxas de remoção de nutriente foram: 0,07g/m².d de fósforo total e 0,22g/m².d de nitrogênio kjeldahl total. A remoção média de indicadores de contaminação fecal foi de 56% para coliformes totais e uma média de 2,7x104 UFC/100mL e 94% para Escherichia coli com média de 4,6x101 UFC/100mL no efluente final. O efluente final do sistema tipo wetlands apresenta melhora na sua qualidade. / The disparity between population growth and supply of drinking water presents major risks to supply in large urban centers. The use of this feature in homes is different in non-potable and potable use. The use of drinking water for less noble purposes leads to local water shortages in less time, requiring the search of water each time further, the value of this expensive and users. The non-potable use should be supplied by alternative sources such as rainwater or water reuse. In homes, many times the volume of non-potable water is supplied by production of greywater, requiring treatment for their use does not offer risks to users. Systems of treatment like \"wetlands\" may be an economically viable alternative in locations where the availability of area, with attractions such as the independence of electric energy to the process, no need for chemicals and strong aesthetic appeal and environmental. This study aimed to evaluate the technical feasibility of such systems \"wetlands\" in the treatment of gray water, determining the removal of organic material, the constant removal of the substrate, determining the rates of removal of nitrogen and phosphorus and evaluate the efficiency in the removal of indicators of fecal contamination in a system like \"wetlands\" of horizontal subsurface flow grown in polyculture. The system type \"wetlands\" showed average removal of organic matter close to 60% in for the parameters BOD, COD and TOC, allowing: DBO K20 = 0.40; K20 DQO = 0.34 and K20 TOC 0.30. The rates of removal of nutrients were: 0.07 g / m².d of total phosphorus, and 0.22 g / m².d of total Kjeldahl nitrogen. The average removal of indicators of fecal contamination was 56% for total coliforms and an average of 2.7x104CFU/100mL and 94% for Escherichia coli with an average of 4.6x101CFU/100mL in the final effluent. The effluent end of the system as \"wetlands\" has improved its quality.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-23T14:04:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Andrielly Moutinho Knupp.pdf: 3767260 bytes, checksum: 40743ea51e22c5e69ff89d45c24f151e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-02-22 / Os wetlands têm se mostrado como uma opção favorável ao tratamento de água cinza visando o reúso predial devido à boa remoção de poluentes e, principalmente, ao baixo custo de implantação e operação, além do mínimo impacto ambiental quando comparados a outros sistemas. O presente estudo teve como objetivo caracterizar físico-quimica e microbiologicamente a água cinza clara gerada em um edifício universitário; avaliar o desempenho de um wetland horizontal (WH) como pós-tratamento de um filtro anaeróbio tratando água cinza clara na produção de água para reúso predial; e estudar a aplicação do Processo Analítico Hierárquico (AHP) como ferramenta de auxílio na seleção da macrófita a ser utilizada no wetland estudado. As análises físico-químicas e microbiológicas foram realizadas segundo o Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater. O volume de água cinza gerado no edifício universitário foi de 103,1 L.p.d-1. De acordo com a caracterização da água cinza clara, o pH apresentou um valor elevado (9,0), presenças significativas de turbidez (50,9 UT), sólidos suspensos totais (44,8 mg.L-1), matéria orgânica (178,3 mgO2.L-1 de DQO e 41,3 mgO2.L-1 de DBO5,20), SO42- (60,1 mg.L-1) e microrganismos (2,2x104 NMP.100mL-1 de coliformes totais e 8,5x102 NMP.100mL-1 Escherichia coli), além de baixas concentrações de nitrogênio (2,7 mg.L-1 NTK e 2,0 mg.L-1de NH3) e fósforo (0,4 mg.L-1). Vale ressaltar que a água cinza estudada possui uma relação DBO5,20/DQO variando de 0,2 a 0,3, e que, apesar da baixa biodegradabilidade, o tratamento biológico ainda é possível, porém sob condições limitantes de degradação. No que diz respeito ao desempenho do sistema de tratamento de água cinza, foram avaliados quatro períodos de testes no WH, sendo estes caracterizados pelos tempos de detenção hidráulica (TDH) de 0,7; 1; 1,9 e 3,2 dias. Como resultado, observou-se que o efluente proveniente do WH apresentou melhor desempenho para o TDH de 3,2 dias ao longo dos períodos analisados, mostrando-se adequado quando utilizado como pós-tratamento de um filtro anaeróbio. Foram alcançadas eficiências de remoção globais médias de 80% para turbidez e sólidos suspensos totais. Além disso, também foram alcançadas eficiências de remoção de 81% para DQO e 66% para DBO5,20. A densidade média de E. coli obtida no efluente do WH foi de 3,1x10² NMP.100mL-1. O AHP foi executado em três etapas: identificação das macrófitas utilizadas nos wetlands , seleção de dez macrófitas mais utilizadas neste tipo de tratamento e aplicação do método AHP para as condições da região da Grande Vitória-ES. Como resultado da utilização do AHP, obteve-se a Equisetum hyemale L. e a Canna x generalis como as plantas mais adequadas para o tratamento de água cinza por meio de wetlands / The wetlands have been shown as a favorable option for the greywater treatment aiming the building reuse due to the good pollutants removal, and mainly, the low cost of implantation and operation, as well as minimal environmental impact when compared with another systems. The present study aimed to characterize physico-chemical and microbiologically the light greywater generated in a corporate building; evaluate the performance of horizontal wetland (HW) as a post-treatment of an upflow anaerobic filter (AF) treating light greywater in the water reuse building production; and to study the application of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) as assistance tool in the selection of the macrophyte to be used at the evaluated wetland. The physico-chemical and microbiological analysis were performed according the Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater. The greywater s volume generated in the corporate building was 103,1 L.p.d-1. According with the characterization of the light greywater, the pH showed a high value (9.0), significant presences of turbidity (50.9 TU), TSS (44.8 mg.L-1), organic matter (178.3 mgO2.L-1 COD and 41.3 mgO2.L-1 DBO5,20), SO42- (60.1 mg.L-1) and microorganisms (2.2x104 NMP.100mL-1 total coliforms and 2.0x102 NMP.100mL-1 E. coli), in addition of low nitrogen and phospohrous concentrations. Note that the greywater evaluated has a ratio DBO5,20/DQO ranging 0.2 at 0.3, and that despite the low biodegradability, the biological treatment is still possible, but under limitant degradation conditions. About the performance of greywater treatment system, were analyzed four periods of experiments, being characterized by the hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 0.7; 1.0; 1.9 e 3.2 days. Such as result, observed that the HW effluent showed better performance for the HRT of 3.2 days over the analyzed periods, making it adequate when used such as post-treatment of an anaerobic filter. Were achieved global removal efficiencies mean of 80% to turbidity and total suspended solids. Moreover, was reached too removal efficiencies of 81% COD and 66% BOD5,20. The mean density obtained of E. coli in the HW effluent was 3.1x10² NMP.100mL-1. The AHP was executed in three steps: identification of the macrophytes used at the wetlands, selection of ten more macrophytes used in this treatment type and application of the AHP method to the Greater Victoria s Region conditions. As result of the AHP application, obtained the Equisetum hyemale L. and Canna x generalis such as the more appropriate plants to the greywater treatment by wetlands

A disparidade entre o crescimento populacional e a oferta de água potável apresenta grandes riscos de abastecimento em grandes centros urbanos. A utilização desse recurso em residências é diferenciada em uso potável e não potável. A utilização de água potável para finalidades menos nobres leva à escassez hídrica local em menor prazo, necessitando de busca de água cada vez mais longe, encarecendo o valor desse bem aos usuários. O uso não potável deveria ser suprido por fontes alternativas, como águas pluviais ou água de reúso. Em residências, muitas vezes o volume de água não potável é suprido pela produção de água cinza, necessitando de tratamento para que seu uso não ofereça riscos aos usuários. Sistemas de tratamento tipo wetlands podem ser uma alternativa economicamente viável em locais com disponibilidade de área, tendo como atrativos a independência de energia elétrica para o processo, ausência da necessidade de produtos químicos e forte apelo estético e ambiental. O presente trabalho visou avaliar a viabilidade técnica de sistemas tipo wetlands no tratamento de água cinza, determinando a remoção de material orgânico, a constante de remoção desse substrato, determinar as taxas de remoções de nitrogênio e fósforo e avaliar a eficiência na remoção de indicadores de contaminação fecal em um sistema tipo wetlands de fluxo subsuperficial horizontal cultivado em policultura. O sistema tipo wetlands apresentou remoção média de matéria orgânica próxima a 60% nos para os parâmetros DBO, DQO e COT, possibilitando: K20 DBO = 0,40; K20 DQO = 0,34; e K20 COT 0,30. As taxas de remoção de nutriente foram: 0,07g/m².d de fósforo total e 0,22g/m².d de nitrogênio kjeldahl total. A remoção média de indicadores de contaminação fecal foi de 56% para coliformes totais e uma média de 2,7x104 UFC/100mL e 94% para Escherichia coli com média de 4,6x101 UFC/100mL no efluente final. O efluente final do sistema tipo wetlands apresenta melhora na sua qualidade. / The disparity between population growth and supply of drinking water presents major risks to supply in large urban centers. The use of this feature in homes is different in non-potable and potable use. The use of drinking water for less noble purposes leads to local water shortages in less time, requiring the search of water each time further, the value of this expensive and users. The non-potable use should be supplied by alternative sources such as rainwater or water reuse. In homes, many times the volume of non-potable water is supplied by production of greywater, requiring treatment for their use does not offer risks to users. Systems of treatment like \"wetlands\" may be an economically viable alternative in locations where the availability of area, with attractions such as the independence of electric energy to the process, no need for chemicals and strong aesthetic appeal and environmental. This study aimed to evaluate the technical feasibility of such systems \"wetlands\" in the treatment of gray water, determining the removal of organic material, the constant removal of the substrate, determining the rates of removal of nitrogen and phosphorus and evaluate the efficiency in the removal of indicators of fecal contamination in a system like \"wetlands\" of horizontal subsurface flow grown in polyculture. The system type \"wetlands\" showed average removal of organic matter close to 60% in for the parameters BOD, COD and TOC, allowing: DBO K20 = 0.40; K20 DQO = 0.34 and K20 TOC 0.30. The rates of removal of nutrients were: 0.07 g / m².d of total phosphorus, and 0.22 g / m².d of total Kjeldahl nitrogen. The average removal of indicators of fecal contamination was 56% for total coliforms and an average of 2.7x104CFU/100mL and 94% for Escherichia coli with an average of 4.6x101CFU/100mL in the final effluent. The effluent end of the system as \"wetlands\" has improved its quality.

The Central Queensland University developed an on-site wastewater treatment and reuse technology. Septic tanks were used for primary treatment and the discharged effluent was then pumped though a series of contained channels. The channels were designed to be a modified evapotranspiration trench; they were comprised of an aggregate layer and a soil layer in which were planted a variety of plants. The aggregate and the soil provided physical filtration, the microorganisms within the effluent, aggregate and soil provided nutrient reuse and transformation and the plants also used the nutrients and reused the treated effluent through evapotranspiration. Any effluent that was not transpired was returned to a holding tank and pumped through the evapotranspiration again. The treatment technology was assessed in relation to its ability to treat effluent in a sustainable manner. The water and soil was examined for concentrations of nutrients, heavy metals, salts, sodium, and organic carbon %. The pH, temperature and number of colony forming units of certain microorganism potential pathogens were also inspected in the soil and the water. The plants grown within the evapotranspiration channels were assessed in regards to their health, water usage, and in some cases potential pathogens on fruit. The infrastructure that was used to construct the wastewater treatment and reuse system was also evaluated in regards to reliability and maintenance. Certain limiting factors, in particular sodicity and salinity were identified, but the trial was successful and a sustainable form of on-site wastewater treatment and reuse technology was developed.

This thesis offers a decision support framework to establish the economic feasibility associated with considering the installation of a greywater system. Because of the potential dangers and lack of widespread knowledge of greywater systems, the study begins by providing an explanation of current greywater technology to include the history of the technology, an explanation of greywater as opposed to reclaimed water, the potential risks of greywater use, and the necessary components of a greywater system. This decision support framework can be used with any scale of greywater system to be installed within any scale of facility. The example of an typical Atlanta, Georgia, USA multifamily rental development is used within the study to explain the framework by showing a working model. The need for water conservation in Georgia is shown and how greywater use dovetails with the need to lower overall usage. The legality of greywater use in Georgia along with the specific legal uses is also shown. The findings are then made State of Georgia and use specific to a multifamily development. The decision support framework provided is a viable tool. The sample framework in chapter 5 shows that the implementation of a greywater unit in the sampled facility would save 5,060,739.6 gallons of potable water per year with a 10.49 year payback cycle.

Small on-site sanitation systems for wastewater collection and treatment are prevalent in suburban and rural areas in many countries. However, these systems often underperform, causing potential impact to the receiving waters and increasing the risks to public health, thus hindering the overall sustainability of the systems. Understanding the different sustainability dimensions and trade-offs between assessment indicators can support the planning of sustainable on-site sanitation systems for a specific context. The overall aim of this thesis was to evaluate the sustainability and function of on-site sanitation systems by defining a set of indicators to assess on-site sanitation options and estimating them for different scenarios, and by investigating the treatment efficiency of on-site facilities for domestic wastewater treatment in a field study. Particular attention was given to the removal of phosphorus (P) and indicator bacteria due to their relevance in terms of eutrophication risk and public-health concern. In a multi-criteria approach, twelve indicators were defined to assess nine on-site sanitation systems. A reference group representing stakeholders’ views assigned weights to express the relative importance of each indicator. The reference group assigned the highest weights to the indicators robustness, risk of pathogen discharge and nutrient removal. Assessing the robustness proved to be challenging, as there is a gap between how the sanitation systems are expected to perform based on their design, and how they actually perform in practice, mainly due to incorrect construction, operation and maintenance. The discriminating power of the indicators was calculated using the entropy method, which showed that the indicators energy recovery and capital cost had little impact in the final ranking of the alternatives. A sustainability ranking was obtained by using the method ELECTRE III. A scenario analysis based on different settings of interest based on socio-economic and geographical factors was done to evaluate the changes in the ranking of alternatives. Overall, the greywater–blackwater separation system ranked the highest in the baseline scenario and when nutrient-related indicators were important (Scenario 2), together with the urine diversion system. The sand filter and drain field were the most sustainable options when nutrient removal and recycling was not important (Scenario 1), and (in combination with chemical P-removal) when the indicators related to energy and climate change had the highest weights (Scenario 3). In terms of P-removal, chemical removal outranked the alkaline P-filter. In a field study, the effluent wastewater from twelve on-site wastewater treatment facilities with sand and alkaline P-filters was evaluated in terms of removal and discharge of organic content, total and dissolved phosphorus, and indicator bacteria (E. coli, total coliforms, intestinal enterococci and C.perfringens). The results showed that the investigated sand filters generally had low P-removal capacity and sometimes exceeded the criteria for excellent water quality set by the EU bathing water directive with regard to intestinal enterococci and E. coli. Only one sand filter of eight was confirmed to remove P according to the Swedish guidelines for areas with non-sensitive receiving waters with a tot-P effluent concentration below 3 mg L−1. This indicates that a downstream treatment step is needed to meet the guidelines regarding P discharge concentrations. Alkaline P-filters generally removed P efficiently. Despite high effluent pH, the collected data did not generally confirm a further reduction of the bacterial content of the wastewater in the P-filters, as had been previously hypothesized. However, effluent concentrations of indicator bacteria showed moderate positive correlations with effluent concentrations of P and organic matter, indicating the potential of the P-filters to serve as a polishing step also for bacteria. / Små lokala avloppssystem för insamling och rening av avloppsvatten är vanligt förekommande i omvandlings- och landsbygdsområden i många länder. Dessa system fungerar ofta sämre än förväntat vilket kan leda till effekter på recipienter, ökad risk för folkhälsan och begränsa systemens hållbarhet. En djupare förståelse för hållbarhetsdimensioner och avvägningar mellan olika indikatorer kan stödja planering och implementering av hållbara lokala avloppsystem för specifika sammanhang. Det övergripande syftet med denna uppsats var att utvärdera hållbarhet och funktion av enskilda avloppssystem. Detta utfördes genom att först definiera en uppsättning indikatorer för bedömning av ett antal enskilda avloppsalternativ och sedan utvärdera dem för olika scenarier. Vidare var syftet att undersöka några systems prestanda för rening av hushållsavloppsvatten i en fältstudie. Särskilt fokus lades på reduktion av fosfor (P) och indikatorbakterier på grund av deras relevans i relation till övergödningsrisk och folkhälsoperspektiv. I en multikriteriestudie definierades tolv indikatorer för att bedöma nio typer av enskilda avloppssystem. En referensgrupp som representerade olika intressenter viktade indikatorerna för att uttrycka den relativa betydelsen av varje indikator. Referensgruppen gav systemens robusthet, risk för utsläpp av patogener, och näringsreduktion störst vikt. Att bedöma robusthet var en utmaning i studien, eftersom det finns ett gap mellan hur systemen förväntas fungera, och hur de faktiskt fungerar i praktiken, mestadels på grund av felaktig konstruktion, drift och underhåll. Indikatorernas diskriminerande effekt räknades ut med entropimetoden, som visade att indikatorerna energiåtervinning och kapitalkostnad hade liten inverkan på alternativens slutgiltiga rangordning. En scenarioanalys genomfördes baserad på socioekonomiska och geografiska faktorer. En hållbarhetsrankning erhölls genom att använda ELECTRE III-metoden. Överlag rankades system som separerar gråvatten – svartvatten samt urinseparerande system högst i basfallsscenariot och när näringsrelaterade indikatorer var viktiga (scenario 2). Markbäddar och infiltrationsanläggningar var de mest hållbara alternativen när rening och återvinning av näringsämnen inte var viktigt (scenario 1) och (i kombination med kemisk P-rening) när indikatorer relaterade till energi och klimatförändringar viktades högst (scenario 3). När det gäller P-rening, gav system med kemisk rening ett bättre utfall än de med alkaliska P-filter. I en fältstudie utvärderades tolv enskilda avloppsanläggningar med markbaserade system och alkaliska P-filter med avseende på rening och utsläpp av organiskt innehåll, totalt och löst P och indikatorbakterier (E.coli, totala koliformer, intestinala enterokocker och C.perfringens). Resultaten visade att de markbaserade systemen generellt hade låg P-reningskapacitet och ofta överskreds kriterierna för utmärkt vattenkvalitet enligt EUs badvattendirektiv avseende intestinala enterokocker och C. perfringens. Endast ett markbaserat system av åtta uppvisade en P-rening som låg under de svenska riktlinjerna för områden med normal skyddsnivå, med en utsläppskoncentration på under 3 mg L-1 tot-P. Detta indikerade att markbäddar behöver nedströms placerade reningssteg för att uppfylla nuvarande riktlinjer för utsläpp av P. Alkaliska P-filter avskilde generellt P effektivt. Trots högt pH-värde kunde ingen ytterligare minskning av bakterieinnehåll i avloppsvattnet från P-filtren påvisas statistiskt. Utsläppen av indikatorbakterier uppvisade emellertid måttliga positiva korrelationer med utsläpp av P och organiskt material, vilket visar på en viss potential att P-filtren kan fungera som ett ytterligare poleringssteg även för bakterier.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The production and dissemination of knowledge on environmental issues, considering the social and economic aspects, including the reuse of water used for non-potable purposes meets the assumptions of sustainable planet. As, when properly handled, greywater can be used for non-potable consumption in buildings, for example, discharge of toilets, washing floors, washing sidewalks, watering gardens, ornamental uses such as water features and fountains, since that does not provide health risks to users. In this study was evaluated in laboratory scale the potential treatment of greywater coming from the washing machine, and the possibility of reuse of this water for non-potable purposes in popular residences. The methodology was based on the experimental research, using research strategy involving data collection and analysis parameters, quantifying the production of drinking water, greywater demand, analysis of physical, chemical and microbiological parameters, evaluating the performance of synthetic greywater and chemical process by using coagulation, flocculation, fluctuation and flotation, filtration through granular media and post-treatment by adsorption on activated charcoal. A preliminary step of qualitative characterization of greywater collected from the washing machine, from the point physicochemical and microbiological was carried out in a single-family residence. It were collected 43 samples in the period of six months and carried out at laboratory scale, greywater showed electrical conductivity of 364 ± 196 μScm-1; apparent color of 362±201uC; true color of 157 ± 102uC; total solids of 391 ± 215mgL-l; suspended solids of 40 ± 29 mgL-l; dissolved solids of 347 ± 201 mg L-l; settling solids of 1.0 ± 0.8; temperature of 25 ± 3.5°C; turbidity of 49 ± 36 NTU; pH of 7.4 ± 1.2, COD of 300 ± 142 mg/L, BOD of 101 ± 142 mg/L; surfactants of 0.6 ± 0.5 mg/L; coliforms ranged from ND to 9,6x105 and tolerant coliforms term ranged from ND to 1.8x 105. Treatability tests carried out with jar tests, the best conditions of coagulation are defined concentrations of 160 mg/L of aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3), resulting pH coagulation of 5.0 and turbidity of 14.1 NTU, optimization of rapid mixing, Gf of 1200s-1, time of 8s and optimization of flocculation with better performance Gf 40s-1 and the ti me 6 to 10 min. For the above defined conditions were passed by several granular media, selecting the best material, which was the sand grains 0.42mm (effective size). The results indicate that the system of chemical pretreatment by coagulation, flocculation and flotation with subsequent passage through sand and activated carbon adsorption filter, have been successful for the removal of the evaluated parameters. Comparing the initial parameters of the sample and the results improved efficiency of the treatment, we have respective indexes, remove turbidity, 37 NTU to 0.04 NTU; apparent color 276uC to 20uC; COD 228mg/L to 34mg/L and surfactants 1.09mg/L 0.20mg/L. Results showed the potential of the application of this treatment for greywater reuse in residences. / A produção e disseminação do conhecimento para as questões ambientais, considerando os aspectos sociais e econômicos, entre eles, o reúso de águas, aplicado para fins não potáveis vem ao encontro das premissas de planeta sustentável. As águas cinzas, quando devidamente tratadas, podem ser utilizadas para consumo não potável em edificações como, por exemplo, descarga de vasos sanitários, lavagem de pisos, lavagem de calçadas, irrigação de jardins, usos ornamentais como espelhos d água e chafarizes, desde que não proporcione riscos à saúde dos usuários. Neste estudo foi avaliado em escala laboratorial o potencial de tratamento de águas cinzas oriundas da máquina de lavar roupas e a possibilidade de reúso dessas águas para fins não potáveis em residências populares. A metodologia teve como base a pesquisa experimental, empregando estratégia de investigação envolvendo coleta de dados e análises de parâmetros, quantificando a produção de água potável, demanda de águas cinzas, análises de parâmetros físico-químicos e microbiológicos, avaliação do desempenho da água cinza sintética e real, utilizando processo químico através de coagulação, floculação, flutuação e flotação, filtração em meio granular e pós-tratamento por adsorção em carvão ativado. Foi realizada uma etapa preliminar de caracterização qualitativa de águas cinzas coletadas do efluente da máquina de lavar roupa, do ponto de vista físico-químico e microbiológico, em uma residência unifamiliar. Foram coletadas 43 amostras no período de 6 meses e feitas análises laboratoriais; a água cinza apresentou condutividade elétrica de 364±196 μScm-1; cor aparente de 362±201uC; cor verdadeira de 157±102uC; sólidos totais de 391±215mgL-l ; sólidos suspensos de 40±29 mgL-l ; sólidos dissolvidos de 347±201 mgL-l; sólidos sedimentáveis de 1,0±0,8; temperatura de 25±3,5 oC ; turbidez de 49±36 NTU; pH de 7,4 ± 1,2, DQO de 300±142 mg/L, DBO de 101±142 mg/L; surfactantes de 0,6±0,5 mg/L; coliformes totais variaram de ND a 9,6x105 e coliformes termo tolerantes de ND a 1,8x 105. Através de ensaios de tratabilidade utilizando teste de jarros, foram definidas as melhores condições de concentrações do coagulante, 160 mg/L de sulfato de alumínio (Al2(SO4)3), resultando o pH de coagulação de 5,0 e turbidez de 14 NTU, otimização da mistura rápida, Gf de 1200s-1, tempo de 8s e a otimização da floculação com melhor desempenho Gf 40s-1 com o tempo 6 a 10 min. Para as condições anteriores definidas foram passados por meios granulares diversos, selecionando o melhor material, que foi a areia de grãos 0,42mm (tamanho efetivo). Os resultados indicam que o sistema de pré-tratamento químico através da coagulação, floculação ou flotação com posterior passagem por filtro de areia e adsorção por carvão ativado, foram bem sucedidos para a remoção dos parâmetros avaliados. Comparando os parâmetros iniciais da amostra e os resultados de maior eficiência do tratamento, temos os respectivos índices: remoção de turbidez, 36,6NTU para 0,04NTU; cor aparente, 276uC para 20uC; DQO, 228mg/l para 34mg/L; e surfactantes 1,09mg/L para 0,20mg/L. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho indicaram o potencial de aplicação desse tratamento visando o aproveitamento de águas cinzas em residências.

The diploma thesis deals with the current knowledge in the field of saving measures in swimming pool services. The theoretical part describes the typology of swimming pools and subsequently deals with the technological aspect, including heat management. Furthermore, the theoretical part describes in detail the possibilities of saving measures in public swimming pool operations, especially in sanitary facilities, including reuse of wastewater from showers as a water source, or heat recovery from wastewater. The knowledge from the theoretical section is then applied in the practical part, where saving measures are proposed on the public swimming pool.