L’avancée de l’âge entraîne une diminution du contrôle moteur ainsi que l’apparition de troubles de la marche et de l'équilibre. Ces difficultés affectent la capacité des personnes âgées à accomplir les activités de la vie quotidienne et à maintenir leur indépendance (Salthouse, 2000 ; Seidler et al., 2010). Dans le cadre des théories de la simulation, de nombreuses études ont révélé des similitudes, tant au niveau comportemental que neuronal, entre exécution et simulation motrice (Decety & Jeannerod, 1995 ; Grezes & Decety, 2001). Selon Jeannerod (2001), ce processus cognitif permet de simuler mentalement une action, tandis qu’un mécanisme d’inhibition est mis en place pour contrôler toute exécution motrice externe (Bonnet et al., 1997 ; Jeannerod, 1994). Il est toutefois difficile de caractériser ce processus et d’ainsi révéler les troubles de simulation. Par ailleurs, peu d’études se sont intéressées à stimuler le processus de simulation motrice, notamment par l’utilisation de stimuli odorants. En effet, il a été rapporté que les odeurs avaient de nombreux effets sur la cognition (Millot et al., 2002), les émotions (Matsunaga et al., 2012), mais également l’exécution motrice (Castiello et al., 2006). Ce travail de thèse vise à évaluer l’effet de l’environnement odorant sur la simulation motrice lors de tâches d’observation et d’imagerie d’actions motrices chez des participants jeunes et âgés sains. Dans une première partie, nous avons révélé la simulation motrice à l’aide d’une cellule de force, lors de l’observation d’actions. Une amplitude plus importante des variations de la force de préhension a été observée lors du visionnage de scènes vidéo d’actions chez des sujets jeunes (étude 1), reflet de la mise en place du processus de simulation motrice. Ces résultats ont été retrouvés lors de la présentation de photos représentant des activités de faible (marche) ou forte (course) intensité (étude 2). Dans une deuxième partie, nous nous sommes intéressés à l’effet des odeurs sur le processus de simulation motrice, la cognition et les émotions. En effet, les odeurs sont fortement liées à la mémoire, qu’elle soit émotionnelle (souvenirs) ou sémantique (catégorisation d’une odeur). Placés dans un environnement odorant, les participants ressentaient une sensation de bien-être lorsque les odeurs rappelaient des souvenirs autobiographiques (étude 3). En nous basant sur le modèle d’Act-in (Versace et al.,2014), sentir une odeur entrainerait une réactivation des traces en mémoire et permettrait de se représenter les caractéristiques perceptuelles d’un objet. Ainsi, sentir une orange (gros fruit) ou une fraise (petit fruit) impliquerait une simulation et une exécution motrice différente en fonction de leurs caractéristiques propres. Nous avons ainsi évalué l’influence des odeurs de fraise et d’orange sur la simulation d’actions impliquant la manipulation de fruits (Etude 4). Il était observé un relâchement de la contraction musculaire lorsqu’une odeur de fraise était présentée. L’odeur d’orange entrainait en revanche une plus importante contraction musculaire, et cela même si les participants devaient s’imaginer manipuler une fraise. Ces études ouvrent la question de la représentation perceptuelle évoquée par l’odeur et pouvant influencer la simulation et donc l’exécution. Utiliser des odeurs pourrait, dès lors, être utile lors la prise en soin des personnes ayant des troubles de la motricité en augmentant la sensation de bien-être ressenti et en stimulant le processus de simulation motrice par l’évocation des caractéristiques de perception par l’odeur. Un ensemble de perspectives de recherches et d’applications cliniques s’ouvrent au regard de ces résultats, et seront discutées dans cette thèse. / With advanced age, a decline in fine motor control, gait and balance is observed. These difficulties affect the elderly’s ability to perform daily activities and maintain their independence (Salthouse, 2000; Seidler et al., 2010). In the context of simulation theories, numerous studies revealed similarities between motor execution and simulation, both at a behavioral and a neural level, in neuronal behavioral behavior (Decety and Jeannerod 1995, Grezes and Decety 2001). According to Jeannerod (2001), this cognitive process permits to simulate an action, while a mechanism of inhibition operates to control any external motor execution (Bonnet et al., 1997, Jeannerod, 1994). However, it is difficult to characterize this process and thus reveal the simulation disorders. In addition, few studies were interesting in the stimulation of the motor simulation process, especially by using odorant stimuli. Indeed, odors can have effects on cognition (Millot et al., 2002), emotions (Matsunaga et al., 2012), and motor execution (Castiello et al., 2006). This thesis aims to evaluate the effect of the odorant environment on motor simulation during action observation and motor imagery task in healthy young and elderly participants. In the first part, we revealed the motor simulation by using a grip-force sensor during action observation and motor imagery tasks. A higher amplitude of the grip force variations was observed in young participants when they were watching video scenes of actions (study 1), reflecting the involving of motor simulation process. These results were also found when pictures depicting either a low (walk) or high (race) intensity of force were presented to young participants (study 2). In the same way, these variations were observed in elderly participants when they were watching video of reach-to-grasp actions (study 3). In the second part, we were interested in the effect of odors on the motor simulation process, cognition and emotions. Indeed, odors are strongly related to memory, either in an emotional (memories) or in a semantic (categorization of an odor) way. Placed in an odorant environment, participants felt more positive affects when the odors recalling autobiographical memories were diffused (Study 4). Based on the Act-in model (Versace et al., 2014), perceiving an odor would lead to a reactivation of memory traces implying the perceptual characteristics of this odor. Thus, smelling an orange (large fruit) or a strawberry (small fruit) would lead to a different motor simulation and execution according to their own characteristics. We thus evaluated the influence of strawberry and orange odors on the simulation of reaching-grasping actions involving fruit handling (Study 4). A size-congruence effect was found when a strawberry odor was diffused, as revealed with the muscular release observed. On the other hand, the orange odor led to a more important muscular contraction, especially when the participants had to imagine handle a strawberry. These studies open the question of the perceptual representation evoked by the odors that can influence the simulation process and thus the execution. Using odors could be relevant in clinical settings for people who are suffering from motor disorders by improving the well-being feeling and also stimulate the motor simulation process by evoking perceptual characteristics with the odors. A set of research perspectives and clinical applications will be opened considering these results and will be discussed in this thesis.

Suite à un accident vasculaire cérébral (AVC), des déficits au membre controlatéral et ipsilatéral à la lésion cérébrale sont observés chez les personnes avec un AVC. La performance du membre ipsilatéral est déterminée par l’importance de la sévérité clinique du membre controlatéral ainsi que par l’adéquation du traitement bihémisphérique des informations sensori-motrices. L’objectif de la présente étude est de comparer la performance motrice de la main ipsilatérale lors de diverses tâches nécessitant un niveau plus ou moins complexe de traitement de l’information chez une clientèle hémiplégique ayant une faible sévérité clinique. Les résultats démontrent que les forces de pinces entre le pouce et l’index du membre ipsilatéral sont modulées et anticipées adéquatement chez les personnes avec un AVC ayant une faible sévérité clinique tel que démontré par des scores de cinq ou plus au Chedoke-McMaster Stroke Assessment (modules bras et main). La performance motrice du membre ipsilatéral lors de l’exécution d’une tâche de coordination bilatérale est comparable à celle du membre dominant des sujets sains lorsque la tâche est réalisée sans interaction entre les membres supérieurs (deux objets) et elle est perturbée lorsqu’elle implique une action coordonnée et réciproque des membres supérieurs sur un même objet. Ces personnes, ayant une bonne récupération motrice, ont donc une problématique centrale d’intégration et de traitement de l’information sensori-motrice lorsqu’il y a une complexification de la tâche à réaliser. Ces résultats suggèrent donc que les cliniciens devraient porter une attention plus particulière aux activités unilatérales et de coordination bilatérales lors le l’exécution de tâches complexes nécessitant un niveau d’intégration sensori-motrice élevé. / As a result of a cerebrovascular accident (CVA), deficits in the controlateral and ipsilateral limb of the brain lesion are observed in person who had had a CVA. The performance of the ipsilateral limb is determined by the clinical severity of the contralateral limb and by the adequacy of bi-hemispheral processing of information. The objective of the present study is to compare the motor performance of the ipsilateral hand during tasks implying different level of sensori-motor integration in patients with low clinical impairments. The results demonstrated that the pinch strengths between the thumb and the index finger of the ipsilateral limb are modulated and anticipated adequately in stroke persons who have a good motor recovery such as demonstrated by scores of five or more in the Chedoke-McMaster Stroke Assessment (arm and hand parts). The motor performance of the ipsilateral limb of stroke persons during the execution of a bilateral coordination task is comparable to the motor performance of the dominant limb of healthy subjects when the task is realized without interaction between upper limbs (two objects) and it is perturbed when it implies a coordinated and reciprocal action of upper limbs on the same object. Consequently, these stroke persons with a good motor recovery have a central problem of integration and processing of sensori-motor informations when a more complex task has to be realized. These results suggest that the clinicians should pay more attention during unilateral tasks and during tasks with bilateral coordination that require a higher level of sensori-motor integration.

Suite à un accident vasculaire cérébral (AVC), des déficits au membre controlatéral et ipsilatéral à la lésion cérébrale sont observés chez les personnes avec un AVC. La performance du membre ipsilatéral est déterminée par l’importance de la sévérité clinique du membre controlatéral ainsi que par l’adéquation du traitement bihémisphérique des informations sensori-motrices. L’objectif de la présente étude est de comparer la performance motrice de la main ipsilatérale lors de diverses tâches nécessitant un niveau plus ou moins complexe de traitement de l’information chez une clientèle hémiplégique ayant une faible sévérité clinique. Les résultats démontrent que les forces de pinces entre le pouce et l’index du membre ipsilatéral sont modulées et anticipées adéquatement chez les personnes avec un AVC ayant une faible sévérité clinique tel que démontré par des scores de cinq ou plus au Chedoke-McMaster Stroke Assessment (modules bras et main). La performance motrice du membre ipsilatéral lors de l’exécution d’une tâche de coordination bilatérale est comparable à celle du membre dominant des sujets sains lorsque la tâche est réalisée sans interaction entre les membres supérieurs (deux objets) et elle est perturbée lorsqu’elle implique une action coordonnée et réciproque des membres supérieurs sur un même objet. Ces personnes, ayant une bonne récupération motrice, ont donc une problématique centrale d’intégration et de traitement de l’information sensori-motrice lorsqu’il y a une complexification de la tâche à réaliser. Ces résultats suggèrent donc que les cliniciens devraient porter une attention plus particulière aux activités unilatérales et de coordination bilatérales lors le l’exécution de tâches complexes nécessitant un niveau d’intégration sensori-motrice élevé. / As a result of a cerebrovascular accident (CVA), deficits in the controlateral and ipsilateral limb of the brain lesion are observed in person who had had a CVA. The performance of the ipsilateral limb is determined by the clinical severity of the contralateral limb and by the adequacy of bi-hemispheral processing of information. The objective of the present study is to compare the motor performance of the ipsilateral hand during tasks implying different level of sensori-motor integration in patients with low clinical impairments. The results demonstrated that the pinch strengths between the thumb and the index finger of the ipsilateral limb are modulated and anticipated adequately in stroke persons who have a good motor recovery such as demonstrated by scores of five or more in the Chedoke-McMaster Stroke Assessment (arm and hand parts). The motor performance of the ipsilateral limb of stroke persons during the execution of a bilateral coordination task is comparable to the motor performance of the dominant limb of healthy subjects when the task is realized without interaction between upper limbs (two objects) and it is perturbed when it implies a coordinated and reciprocal action of upper limbs on the same object. Consequently, these stroke persons with a good motor recovery have a central problem of integration and processing of sensori-motor informations when a more complex task has to be realized. These results suggest that the clinicians should pay more attention during unilateral tasks and during tasks with bilateral coordination that require a higher level of sensori-motor integration.

In many occupations, exposure to hand-transmitted vibration (HTV) over a prolonged period causes various disorders involving the vascular, neural and musculoskeletal systems, collectively known as the hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). It is a complex and potentially disabling chronic disorder of the upper extremities, especially of the hands. Numbness, tingling, reduced tactile discrimination, and impaired manipulative dexterity are often reported by workers exposed to HTV. The precise pathophysiological mechanism responsible for vascular injuries in HAVS has not yet been fully clarified; it seems to be multifactorial and highly complex. Interaction of neural signals, hormones, mediators and changes in the blood vessel itself appear to contribute to the development of such vascular injuries. This study aims to assess the risk of the hand-transmitted vibration exposure during pneumatic impact wrench operation in a rock drill repair and maintenance workshop at a South African platinum mine. A total of 8 workers working on a day to day basis with impact wrenches were available for this study. For each of the workers a control (not exposed to vibration) was selected on the basis of gender, ethnic group, smoking habits, age and body mass index (BMI). Grip force, dexterity and hand-eye co-ordination were tested on the workers and control group before and after work. Finger systolic blood pressure (FSBP) was also measured after cold provocation of the worker and control groups. Results have shown astatistically significant difference between the two groups with respect coordination, dexterity and FSBP after cold provocation. Vibration measurements shows three workers had values above the suggested ELV of 5 m/s² for an eight hour A (8) workday. With regards to dexterity, workers were capable to manipulate small objects better with their dominant right (vibration exposed) hand after work than before work. In contrast, it seems that the number of pegs correctly inserted by the controls is not uniformly affected by their 8 hour workday. The worker group showed a greater grip force than that of the control group, both before and after work.There was a statistically significant difference between the control and worker group with respect to the number of mistakes during the mirror trace and the time to complete this test only for the right hand. The difference in FSBP after cold provocation between the control and worker group observed is of medium importance when compared with effect sizes, however, there was no statistical significant difference. In this study, it was very difficult to make valid conclusions due to the limitations of a small sample size. A longitudinal study should be conducted preferably using newly appointed workers with no prior exposure to vibration and a sufficient control group to eliminate the effect other confounding variables such as general working conditions. / Thesis (MSc (Occupational Hygiene))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

In many occupations, exposure to hand-transmitted vibration (HTV) over a prolonged period causes various disorders involving the vascular, neural and musculoskeletal systems, collectively known as the hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). It is a complex and potentially disabling chronic disorder of the upper extremities, especially of the hands. Numbness, tingling, reduced tactile discrimination, and impaired manipulative dexterity are often reported by workers exposed to HTV. The precise pathophysiological mechanism responsible for vascular injuries in HAVS has not yet been fully clarified; it seems to be multifactorial and highly complex. Interaction of neural signals, hormones, mediators and changes in the blood vessel itself appear to contribute to the development of such vascular injuries. This study aims to assess the risk of the hand-transmitted vibration exposure during pneumatic impact wrench operation in a rock drill repair and maintenance workshop at a South African platinum mine. A total of 8 workers working on a day to day basis with impact wrenches were available for this study. For each of the workers a control (not exposed to vibration) was selected on the basis of gender, ethnic group, smoking habits, age and body mass index (BMI). Grip force, dexterity and hand-eye co-ordination were tested on the workers and control group before and after work. Finger systolic blood pressure (FSBP) was also measured after cold provocation of the worker and control groups. Results have shown astatistically significant difference between the two groups with respect coordination, dexterity and FSBP after cold provocation. Vibration measurements shows three workers had values above the suggested ELV of 5 m/s² for an eight hour A (8) workday. With regards to dexterity, workers were capable to manipulate small objects better with their dominant right (vibration exposed) hand after work than before work. In contrast, it seems that the number of pegs correctly inserted by the controls is not uniformly affected by their 8 hour workday. The worker group showed a greater grip force than that of the control group, both before and after work.There was a statistically significant difference between the control and worker group with respect to the number of mistakes during the mirror trace and the time to complete this test only for the right hand. The difference in FSBP after cold provocation between the control and worker group observed is of medium importance when compared with effect sizes, however, there was no statistical significant difference. In this study, it was very difficult to make valid conclusions due to the limitations of a small sample size. A longitudinal study should be conducted preferably using newly appointed workers with no prior exposure to vibration and a sufficient control group to eliminate the effect other confounding variables such as general working conditions. / Thesis (MSc (Occupational Hygiene))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.