Continually improving population health in the context of increased life expectancy challenges the assumption that aging invariably leads to significant physical decline. Currently, there is a perception that physical function and hence, independence, can be maintained well into later life (Ory, Hoffman, Hawkins, Sanner & Mockenhaupt, 2003). Given the growing proportion of older adults in many industrialized nations, it is imperative to consider possible factors that influence behaviour, which may in turn contribute to functional losses that have hitherto been attributed to aging. For example, pervasive ageist stereotypes may play a role in reducing older adults’ opportunities to independently perform physical tasks (i.e. removal of difficult or challenging physical tasks from older adult residences; younger individuals insisting on physical help that is unneeded) so that ability is gradually compromised by disuse. This study explores the potential for such reduced opportunity among community-dwelling older adults using a questionnaire-based methodology and hypothetical stimulus scenarios. In the scenarios, participants’ mature children offer the older adults unsolicited help with two functional tasks: rising from a sofa and grocery shopping. The 52 study participants (mean age = 78.4 ± 6.0 years) were each asked to report their independence preference, anticipated affective responses, behavioural intentions, self-efficacy for relevant physical skills, relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE), attribution for why the help was offered, and perceived benefits of accepting and declining the help. Using a Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) framework, individuals with higher self-efficacy, stronger preference for independence, or more perceived benefits of declining relative to those of accepting help were expected to be more likely to intend to decline assistance. In addition to being related to intentions, these factors, along with lower RISE beliefs, were expected to be associated with greater negative affect. Finally, RISE was anticipated to be directly proportional to self-efficacy and thus, attribution of the offered help to physical (versus social) reasons was hypothesized to relate to lower self-efficacy and RISE. Primary study hypotheses were generally not supported, with a few exceptions. First, as hypothesized, those who perceived more benefits associated with declining help were more likely to decline and less likely to accept the offered help (p ≤ 0.005). Second, the more perceived benefits associated with declining help (relative to those associated with accepting help), the less total positive affect older adults reported (r ≤ -0.31, p ≤ 0.02). Third, individuals who had higher self-efficacy also reported higher RISE (r ≥ 0.34, p ≤ 0.01). Finally, those who made physical attributions for the offer of help reported lower RISE (p ≤ 0.009), and lower shopping self-efficacy (p = 0.004). Secondary analyses provided some insight into the lack of support for study hypotheses regarding the receipt of unsolicited assistance. For example, both high self-efficacy beliefs (mean = 85.1 ± 15.8% for rising and 91.5 ± 11.2% for shopping) and low TUG times (mean = 12.2 ± 4.7s) suggested that the sample was particularly high-functioning. This would help to explain why self-efficacy was not found to be significantly related to participant intentions to accept help. Another explanation for this finding is the influence of social factors considered by older adults in these helping situations. Participant intentions could have been based on anticipated social rather than physical benefits. This rationale was supported by high rates of selection for socially-relevant perceived benefits of receiving help. Further examination also confirmed that participants generally reported very low levels of total negative affect. This would partially account for the absence of a relationship between perceived benefits and negative affect, even though the former was shown to be correlated with total positive affect. Despite raising as many questions as it answers, the present study succeeds in illustrating the perceptions of higher functioning older adults in situations where physical help is offered to them. Although these participants would not require any help with the physical tasks presented, on average, older adults indicated that they would likely accept the offered assistance approximately half of the time. When the findings of the two sets of analyses are considered, they suggest that much research is needed to understand the perspective of older adults in helping situations. Assumptions about older adults’ reactions to receiving assistance with physical tasks may not be straightforward. Having the ability to function independently may not necessarily mean that older adults refuse assistance. Like younger adults, they may interpret the social situation in terms of a variety of outcomes. Indeed, if researchers do not consider complex interpretations for how older adults function in regard to physical independence, they may be letting personal ageism shape their research. Consequently, there is cause to pursue further research in this underserved area of investigation into the perceptions and actions of older adults. Future studies in this vein may make use of the lessons learned from this exploratory investigation.

Continually improving population health in the context of increased life expectancy challenges the assumption that aging invariably leads to significant physical decline. Currently, there is a perception that physical function and hence, independence, can be maintained well into later life (Ory, Hoffman, Hawkins, Sanner & Mockenhaupt, 2003). Given the growing proportion of older adults in many industrialized nations, it is imperative to consider possible factors that influence behaviour, which may in turn contribute to functional losses that have hitherto been attributed to aging. For example, pervasive ageist stereotypes may play a role in reducing older adults’ opportunities to independently perform physical tasks (i.e. removal of difficult or challenging physical tasks from older adult residences; younger individuals insisting on physical help that is unneeded) so that ability is gradually compromised by disuse. This study explores the potential for such reduced opportunity among community-dwelling older adults using a questionnaire-based methodology and hypothetical stimulus scenarios. In the scenarios, participants’ mature children offer the older adults unsolicited help with two functional tasks: rising from a sofa and grocery shopping. The 52 study participants (mean age = 78.4 ± 6.0 years) were each asked to report their independence preference, anticipated affective responses, behavioural intentions, self-efficacy for relevant physical skills, relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE), attribution for why the help was offered, and perceived benefits of accepting and declining the help. Using a Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) framework, individuals with higher self-efficacy, stronger preference for independence, or more perceived benefits of declining relative to those of accepting help were expected to be more likely to intend to decline assistance. In addition to being related to intentions, these factors, along with lower RISE beliefs, were expected to be associated with greater negative affect. Finally, RISE was anticipated to be directly proportional to self-efficacy and thus, attribution of the offered help to physical (versus social) reasons was hypothesized to relate to lower self-efficacy and RISE. Primary study hypotheses were generally not supported, with a few exceptions. First, as hypothesized, those who perceived more benefits associated with declining help were more likely to decline and less likely to accept the offered help (p ≤ 0.005). Second, the more perceived benefits associated with declining help (relative to those associated with accepting help), the less total positive affect older adults reported (r ≤ -0.31, p ≤ 0.02). Third, individuals who had higher self-efficacy also reported higher RISE (r ≥ 0.34, p ≤ 0.01). Finally, those who made physical attributions for the offer of help reported lower RISE (p ≤ 0.009), and lower shopping self-efficacy (p = 0.004). Secondary analyses provided some insight into the lack of support for study hypotheses regarding the receipt of unsolicited assistance. For example, both high self-efficacy beliefs (mean = 85.1 ± 15.8% for rising and 91.5 ± 11.2% for shopping) and low TUG times (mean = 12.2 ± 4.7s) suggested that the sample was particularly high-functioning. This would help to explain why self-efficacy was not found to be significantly related to participant intentions to accept help. Another explanation for this finding is the influence of social factors considered by older adults in these helping situations. Participant intentions could have been based on anticipated social rather than physical benefits. This rationale was supported by high rates of selection for socially-relevant perceived benefits of receiving help. Further examination also confirmed that participants generally reported very low levels of total negative affect. This would partially account for the absence of a relationship between perceived benefits and negative affect, even though the former was shown to be correlated with total positive affect. Despite raising as many questions as it answers, the present study succeeds in illustrating the perceptions of higher functioning older adults in situations where physical help is offered to them. Although these participants would not require any help with the physical tasks presented, on average, older adults indicated that they would likely accept the offered assistance approximately half of the time. When the findings of the two sets of analyses are considered, they suggest that much research is needed to understand the perspective of older adults in helping situations. Assumptions about older adults’ reactions to receiving assistance with physical tasks may not be straightforward. Having the ability to function independently may not necessarily mean that older adults refuse assistance. Like younger adults, they may interpret the social situation in terms of a variety of outcomes. Indeed, if researchers do not consider complex interpretations for how older adults function in regard to physical independence, they may be letting personal ageism shape their research. Consequently, there is cause to pursue further research in this underserved area of investigation into the perceptions and actions of older adults. Future studies in this vein may make use of the lessons learned from this exploratory investigation.

The purpose of this study was to determine how cognitive, demographic, and motivational factors can be used to understand help-seeking behavior in college students. Specifically, the study examined engagement in Supplemental Instruction (SI) of undergraduate students at Texas A&M University. An additional purpose of the study was to determine the efficacy of SI. The sample for the study was 2,407 undergraduate students who were enrolled in eight randomly selected courses at Texas A&M University in the spring 2004 semester. Students enrolled in multiple course sections were eliminated from the study. The revised sample consisted of 2,297 students. Data collected for all students in the sample included student demographic information, SI attendance and participation, and final course grades. Students were also requested to complete an on-line survey instrument containing a modified version of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) and questions related to parent education and household income. Ultimately, 1,003 students from the revised sample submitted surveysfor a response rate of 43.7%. Based on attendance data and participation ratings, students were classified into three engagement groups for subsequent data analysis: high engagement, low engagement, and non-SI. The following were among the major findings from the study: ?? Hispanic students were significantly more engaged in SI than their White peers. ?? Engagement in SI was inversely related to grade level classification. ?? SI participants had significantly lower mean SAT math and verbal scores than students who did not attend SI. ?? The motivational variables as a set had a statistically significant relationship with SI engagement. ?? Extrinsic motivation, organization, academic self-efficacy, control beliefs, help-seeking, and peer learning were the motivational scales which best predicted SI engagement. ?? Students who were highly engaged in SI had significantly higher mean final course grades than either non-participants or low engagement students even controlling for differences in SAT scores, cumulative grade point average, and motivation. The study helps provide some insight into the dynamics of academic help-seeking. It also contributes to the growing body of evidence which shows that SI is an effective intervention for improving student success in traditionally difficult courses.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2001. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 124-134).

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Texas at Arlington, 2008.

Thesis (D. Min.)--Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2008. / Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 205-210).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 2002. / Supervisor: Frank Wicker. Vita. Includes bibliographical references. Also available from UMI.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Queensland, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references.

Major depression is a prevalent and harmful illness in the United States. About 7% of Americans experience depressive symptoms each year. Leaving depression untreated can result in poor general health and increased susceptibility to severe health risks such as suicide. Although there exists a variety of effective treatment methods for depression, the National Health and Nutrition Survey 2005-2006 reports that less than 30% of depressed individuals will be seen by a mental health care professional. It is essential that current efforts work toward encouraging depressed persons to seek treatment. A number of health promotion campaigns for mental health have tried reaching depressed individuals with little success. Created through a series of projects conducted with depressed men and women, Faces of Depression is a messaging strategy campaign that may prove highly effective with this audience. The campaign utilized video and computer program media in health clinic waiting areas to encourage patients with depressive symptoms to seek help from a primary care physician. These forms of media often capture attention; however, they also require many resources that may not be readily available at a health clinic. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether a cost-sensitive poster version of the Faces of Depression campaign would be an effective alternative to the original media. Undergraduate students completed an online survey concerning their willingness to discuss depression with a physician and their reactions to the health poster. Some had previously sought help from a mental health professional (33%), yet few had received treatment for depression (11%). However, 48% of the participants met the criteria for having current depressive symptoms. Although scores for the posters’ visual elements were low, the idea of the poster in a health clinic waiting area was well received by those currently depressed and non-depressed. Moreover, non-depressed persons were likely to indicate that they would seek help in response to the poster if experiencing depressive symptoms. The study is limited by poster design elements. Amendments to these aesthetic details would likely increase poster effectiveness. Future research should ensure that health promotion materials target those currently experiencing symptoms, especially men. / text

This thesis investigates the functions and roles of victim support groups and their leaders in Northern Ireland. In doing so, this thesis employs social capital theory as a conceptual apparatus for understanding leadership roles and the functions of victim support groups. This thesis is the product of a qualitative case study of victim leaders in Northern Ireland. The data was collected through qualitative semi-structured interviews with victim support group leaders and policymakers. In the findings chapters of this thesis, a typology of leadership emerges from the data, revealing three distinct types of leaders – Shepherds, In Loco Parentis and Social Innovators – that help explain the roles of victim leaders and the reasons why they engage in certain types of group activities over others, specifically, activities which contribute to bonding, constriction or bridging social capital. The findings reveal that one of the main roles of victim leaders centers around the bonding and bridging of social capital in their groups. Consequently, around 80 percent of victim support groups were found to be bonding, whereas only 20 percent of groups were bridging. Moreover, around 20 percent of victim support groups were engaged in dysfunctional bonding, possibly leading to constriction. These findings have negative implications for the social inclusion of victims, as well as the social cohesion of wider society. This thesis argues that the reasons why victim groups bond, bridge or constrict is directly related to two factors: the type of leadership employed in each group and government policies and funding strategies that reinforce exclusivity and fail to encourage bridging. This thesis also makes significant contributions to the scholarly literature on Northern Ireland’s victims, government policy and social capital theory. The conclusion of this thesis argues that social capital theory and constrict theory both fail to fully explain the roles of victim groups and their leaders because the conceptualizations of these theories do not take into account the effects of leadership in groups and social trust that has been traumatized by protracted political violence. Thus, this thesis re-conceptualizes social capital theory and constrict theory by adding traumatized trust and leadership as important variables which help explain the roles of victim support groups and their leaders in divided and transitional settings. Finally, this thesis offers suggestions for policymakers and victim leaders on a social capital strategy that aims to increase positive forms of social capital and discourage constriction.