As sequencing technologies advance genome studies are becoming a basic tool for studying an organism, and with more genomes available comparative genomics is maturing into a powerful tool for biological research. This thesis demonstrates the strength of a comparative genomics approach on a group of understudied eukaryotes, the diplomonads. Diplomonads are a group of single cell eukaryotic flagellates living in oxygen-poor environments. Most diplomonads are intestinal parasites, like the well-studied human parasite Giardia intestinalis. There are seven different G. intestinalis assemblages (genotypes) affecting different hosts, and it’s under debate whether these are one species. A genome-wide study of three G. intestinalis genomes from different assemblages reveals little inter-assemblage sexual recombination, supporting that the different G. intestinalis assemblages are genetically isolated and thus different species. A genomic comparison between the fish parasite S. salmonicida and G. intestinalis reveals genetic differences reflecting differences in their parasitic lifestyles. There is a tighter transcriptional regulation and a larger metabolic reservoir in S. salmonicida, likely adaptations to the fluctuating environments it encounters during its systemic infection compared to G. intestinalis which is a strict intestinal parasite. The S. salmonicida genome analysis also discovers genes involved in energy metabolism. Some of these are experimentally shown to localize to mitochondrion-related organelles in S. salmonicida, indicating that they possess energy-producing organelles that should be classified as hydrogenosomes, as opposed to the mitosomes in G. intestinalis. A transcriptome analysis of the free-living Trepomonas is compared with genomic data from the two parasitic diplomonads. The majority of the genes associated with a free-living lifestyle, like phagocytosis and a larger metabolic capacity, are of prokaryotic origin. This suggests that the ancestor of the free-living diplomonad was likely host-associated and that the free-living lifestyle is a secondary adaptation acquired through horizontal gene transfers.  In conclusion, this thesis uses different comparative genomics approaches to broaden the knowledge on diplomonad diversity and to provide more insight into how the lifestyle differences are reflected on the genetic level. The bioinformatics pipelines and expertise gained in these studies will be useful in other projects in diplomonads and other organismal groups.

Bacteria are social organisms which participate in multiple cooperative and group behaviours. They moreover have peculiar genetic systems, as they often bear mobile genetic elements like plasmids, molecular symbionts that are the cause of widespread horizontal gene transfer and play a large role in bacterial evolution. Both cooperation and horizontal transfer have consequences for human health: cooperative behaviours are very often involved in the virulence of pathogens, and horizontal gene transfer leads to the spread of antibiotic resistance. The evolution of plasmid transfer has mainly been analyzed in terms of infectious benefits for selfish mobile elements. However, chromosomal genes can also modulate horizontal transfer. A huge diversity in transfer rates is observed among bacterial isolates, suggesting a complex co-evolution between plasmids and hosts. Moreover, plasmids are enriched in genes involved in social behaviours, and so could play a key role in bacterial cooperative behaviours. We study here the coevolution of gene mobility and sociality in bacteria. To investigate the selective pressures acting on plasmid transfer and public good production, we use both mathematical modelling and a synthetic system that we constructed where we can independently control public good cooperation and plasmid conjugation in Escherichia coli. We first show experimentally that horizontal transfer allows the specific maintenance of public good alleles in a structured population by increasing relatedness at the gene-level. We further demonstrate experimentally and theoretically that this in turn allows for second-order selection of transfer ability: when cooperation is needed, alleles promoting donor and recipient abilities for public good traits can be selected both on the plasmid and on the chromosome in structured populations. Moreover, donor ability for private good traits can also be selected on the chromosome, provided that transfer happens towards kin. The interactions between transfer and cooperation can finally lead to an association between transfer and public good production alleles, explaining the high frequency of genes related to cooperation that are located on plasmids. Globally, these results provide insight into the mechanisms maintaining cooperation in bacteria, and may suggest ways to target cooperative virulence.

Protein synthesis is a complex process performed by sophisticated cellular particles known as ribosomes. Although RNA constitutes the major structural and functional component, ribosomes from all kingdoms contain an extensive array of proteins with largely undefined functional roles. The work presented in this thesis addresses ribosomal complexity using mutants of Salmonella typhimurium to examine the physiological effects of ribosomal protein (r-protein) removal and orthologous replacement on bacterial fitness and ribosome function. The results of paper I demonstrate that removal of small subunit protein S20 conferred two independent translation initiation defects: (i) a significant reduction in the rate and extent of mRNA binding and (ii) a drastic decrease in the yield of 70S complexes caused by an impairment in subunit association. The topographical location of S20 in mature 30S subunits suggests that these perturbations are the result of improper orientation of helix 44 of the 16S rRNA when S20 is absent. In paper II we show that the major functional impairment associated with loss of large subunit protein L1 manifested as an increase in free ribosomal subunits at the expense of translationally active 70S particles. Furthermore, the formation of free ribosomal subunits was imbalanced suggesting that L1 is required to suppress degradation or promote formation of 30S subunits. Compensatory evolution revealed that mutations in other large subunit proteins mitigate the cost of L1 removal, in one case seemingly via an increase in 70S complex formation. As shown in paper III, the large fitness costs associated with complete removal of r-proteins is in contrast to the generally mild costs of orthologous protein replacement, even in the absence of a high degree of homology to the native protein. This clearly demonstrates the robustness and plasticity of the ribosome and protein synthesis in general and it also implies that functional constraints are highly conserved between these proteins. The findings of paper III also allowed us to examine the barriers that constrain horizontal gene transfer and we find that increased gene dosage of the sub-optimal heterologous protein may be an initial response to stabilize deleterious transfer events. Overall the results highlight the requirement of r-proteins for the maintenance of ribosomal structural integrity.

L'origine des eucaryotes est un problème important de la biologie évolutive, pour lequel de nombreuses hypothèses profondément différentes ont été proposées. L'une des stratégies majeures, pour discriminer ces hypothèses, est d'utiliser le fait qu'elles sont associées à des prédictions distinctes quant aux arbres phylogénétiques qui devraient être observés pour les gènes communs aux eucaryotes et aux archées ou aux eucaryotes et aux bactéries. C'est la problématique que j'ai étudiée au cours de ma thèse. J'ai réalisé des analyses phylogénétiques, à l'échelle génomique et à l'aide d'une approche semi-automatisée, pour tous les gènes présents chez les eucaryotes et les archées ou les bactéries. Mon analyse s'est appuyée sur une qualité méthodologique excellente en regard de la littérature existante sur le sujet. En particulier, j'ai développé de nouveaux principes et outils pour prendre en compte le remodelage constant des génomes procaryotes par les transferts horizontaux et les pertes de gènes. Ces innovations se sont révélées cruciales pour interpréter correctement les arbres de gènes à cette échelle évolutive, et mes résultats se distinguent nettement de ceux rapportés précédemment. Mon analyse a retrouvé, de façon très nette, les deux propriétés déjà connues du génome eucaryote : sa relation en apparence mosaïque aux archées et bactéries, et l'origine alphaproteobactérienne des mitochondries. Mon travail a ensuite permis de démontrer (i) que les gènes liant les eucaryotes aux alphaproteobactéries sont presque tous impliqués dans les fonctions de respiration et de synthèse protéique des mitochondries, et (ii) qu'il n'existe pas d'indices phylogénétiques pour une relation entre les eucaryotes et une lignée bactérienne autre que les alphaproteobactéries, contrairement à ce que prédisent une partie des hypothèses. De plus, mon travail montre clairement que les résultats obtenus par une approche phylogénomique large sur la question de la relation des eucaryotes et des archées dans l'arbre de la vie sont compatibles avec ceux obtenus par l'utilisation d'un jeu restreint de gènes universels. Mes données sont en effet favorables à ce que les eucaryotes branchent au voisinage du dernier ancêtre commun des archées. Mes résultats éclairent la problématique des origines des gènes eucaryotes avec une précision bien plus grande que celle qui avait été atteinte jusqu'alors. Ils montrent notamment l'absence de support phylogénétique pour les hypothèses basées sur une fusion impliquant une bactérie autre que l'ancêtre des mitochondries, et la relative rareté des gènes ayant une origine proto-mitochondriale avérée. Ces observations jouent en faveur des hypothèses se basant soit sur une origine précoce de la mitochondrie dans un hôte archéen, soit sur l'idée que les eucaryotes primitifs étaient fortement sujet aux transferts horizontaux de gènes / Pas de résumé en anglais

Sous des conditions de croissance particulières, certaines bactéries sont capables d'entrer en état de « compétence » pour la transformation naturelle, c'est-à-dire d'exprimer un ensemble de gènes nécessaires à la mise en place d'un système d'import d'ADN exogène dont l'intégration conduit à une transformation génétique et phénotypique. C'est le cas de Legionella pneumophila, bactérie environnementale et agent étiologique de la légionellose. La transformation naturelle a potentiellement participé à l'évolution du génôme de L. pneumophila.Ainsi, l'objectif premier de cette thèse était de décrire les composants principaux du système de transformation naturelle de L. pneumophila, ainsi que son activation et rôle potentiel dans la relation de la bactérie avec ses hôtes. Des méthodes d'analyse transcriptomique et de mutagénèse dirigée ont permis d'identifier les principaux gènes impliqués dans la mise en place du système de transformation naturelle qui, de façon cohérente avec un rôle adaptatif, ne semble pas impliqué dans la virulence bactérienne. Le système inclut un pilus de transformation, structure fréquemment observée chez les espèces naturellement transformables. Le rôle de la protéine structurale MreB dans le mécanisme de transformation naturelle a également été étudié. En proposant un premier modèle du système de transformation naturelle de L. pneumophila, ces travaux ouvrent la voie à une analyse plus détaillée de la dynamique du système et, plus généralement, à une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes de la transformation naturelle chez les bactéries Gram-négatives / Under certain growth conditions, some bacteria are able to develop a « competence » state for natural transformation, that is, to express a panel of genes involved in the assembly of a DNA uptake system that allows bacteria to take up and recombine free exogenous DNA, leading to a genetic and phenotypic transformation. Natural transformation may have played a role in the evolution of the L. pneumophila genome.Thus, the main objective of this work was to describe the main components of the L. pneumophila DNA uptake system and to investigate its role regarding the host-pathogen interaction. Transcriptomic analysis and directed mutagenesis permitted to identify the main components of the system which is not involved in bacterial virulence. The system include a transformation pilus that is a structure frequently found in transformable species. The role of the structural protein MreB has also been investigated.By describing a first model of the natural transformation system of L. pneumophila, this work paves the way to a deeper analysis of the system dynamics and, more generally, to a better understanding of natural transformation in Gram-negative species

Bacteria are many, old and varied; different bacterial species have been evolving for millions of years and show many disparate life-styles and types of metabolism. Nevertheless, some of the characteristics regarding how bacteria organize their chromosomes are relatively conserved, suggesting that they might be both ancient and important, and that selective pressures inhibit their modification. This thesis aims to study some of these characteristics experimentally, assessing how changes affect bacterial growth, and how, after changing conserved features, bacteria might evolve. First, we experimentally tested what are the constraints on the horizontal transfer of a gene highly important for bacterial growth. Second, we investigated the significance of the location and orientation of a highly expressed and essential operon; and we experimentally evolved strains with suboptimal locations and orientations to assess how bacteria could adapt to these changes. Thirdly, we sought to understand the accessibility of different regions of the bacterial chromosome to engage in homologous recombination. And lastly, we constructed bacterial strains with chromosomal inversions to assess what effect the inversions had on growth rate, and how bacteria carrying costly inversions could evolve to reduce these costs. The results provide evidence for different selective forces acting to conserve these chromosome organizational traits. Accordingly, we found that evolutionary distance, functional conservation, suboptimal expression and impaired network connectivity of a gene can affect the successful transfer of genes between bacterial species. We determined that relative location of an essential and highly expressed operon is critical for supporting fast growth rate, and that its location seems to be more important than its orientation. We also found that both the location, and relative orientation of separated duplicate sequences can affect recombination rates between these sequences in different regions of the chromosome. Finally, the data suggest that the importance of having the two arms of a circular bacterial chromosome approximately equal in size is a strong selective force acting against certain type of chromosomal inversions.

A Transferência Horizontal de Genes (THG) é um dos principais mecanismos de evolução bacterianos, impactando a evolução de praticamente todas famílias gênicas. Neste trabalho identificamos e avaliamos padrões de possíveis transferências horizontais de genes pertencentes a duas classes funcionais de dois níveis taxonômicos distintos. Caracterizamos a ocorrência e evolução de 45 genes importantes para a fixação de N2 em 479 genomas de Proteobacteria. Identificamos cinco potenciais aquisições de genes ligados a fixação de N2 por linhagens de Proteobacteria, as quais foram identificadas consistentemente em 36 dos genes analisados. Realizamos predições de transferências horizontais dos 45 entre todos os 479 genomas de Proteobacteria e identificamos possíveis enriquecimentos de THG, provavelmente ligados à sinais filogenéticos e ecológicos. Desenvolvemos um pipeline para identificação semi-automática de efetores do Sistema Secretor do Tipo III em Aeromonas, o qual reportou 21 famílias de potenciais efetores presentes em 105 genomas. Entre os 21 efetores identificados 17 foram descritos pela 1º vez em Aeromonas, corroborando a sensibilidade de nosso pipeline. Com o auxílio de nossos colaboradores foram realizados testes de citotoxidade para efetores identificados in silico, e apenas quatro não inibiram o crescimento de Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Por fim, desenvolvemos um método para agrupamento de famílias gênicas com histórias evolutivas similares que não requer a reconstrução de árvores filogenéticas, aumentando a eficiência computacional. Aplicamos o método desenvolvido para reconstrução da filogenia de Aeromonas, o qual mostrou-se compatível com dados presentes na literatura. / Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT) is one of main mechanisms of bacterial evolution, affecting virtually all gene families. In this document we identified and assessed putative horizontal transfers of genes from two functional classes from two distinct taxonomic levels. We characterized the distribution and evolution of 45 genes important to N2 fixation among 479 Proteobacteria genomes. We identified five potential distinct acquisitions of such genes by Proteobacteria lineages. The distinct origins are consistently identified in 36 out of the 45 assessed genes. We computed possible horizontal transfers of the 45 genes among the 479 Proteobacteria genomes, and we identified enrichments of HGT, likely related to phylogenetic and ecological signals. We developed a semi-automated pipeline to identify effectors of the Type III Secretion System within Aeromonas, which reported 21 putative effector families distributed among 105 genomes. Among the 21 likely effectors 17 have been described in Aeromonas for the first time, highlighting the sensibility of our pipeline. Our colaborators performed cytotoxicity tests for the 21 likely effector families identified by in silico analysis, and only four did not inhibited Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth. Lastly, we developed a method to cluster gene families according to shared evolutionary history, without the requirement of phylogenetic tree reconstruction, increasing computational efficiency. We applied this proposed method during Aeromonas phylogenetic reconstruction, and it showed up compatible with data available on the literature.

Les bactéries sont des organismes extrêmement sociaux, qui présentent de multiples comportements de coopération. De plus, les génomes bactériens sont caractérisés par la présence de nombreux éléments génétiques mobiles, tels que les plasmides. Ces éléments mobiles sont la cause de transferts génétiques horizontaux, et jouent un rôle important dans l'évolution bactérienne. La coopération et le transfert horizontal ont tous deux des conséquences importantes sur la santé humaine: des comportements coopératifs sont souvent à l'origine de propriétés de virulence chez les bactéries pathogènes, et le transfert horizontal entraîne la dissémination de gènes de résistance aux antibiotiques. L'évolution du transfert horizontal a jusqu'ici été analysée essentiellement en termes de bénéfices infectieux apportés à des éléments génétiques égoïstes. Cependant, le taux de transfert des plasmides est extrêmement variable et partiellement contrôlé par les gènes des bactéries hôtes, suggérant une co-évolution complexe entre hôtes et plasmides. De plus, les plasmides sont particulièrement riches en gènes liés à des comportements coopératifs, et semblent donc jouer un rôle-clé dans les phénomènes de socialité bactérienne. Ce travail porte sur la coévolution entre mobilité génétique et socialité chez les bactéries. Nous analysons ici les pressions de sélection agissant sur le transfert de plasmides et la production de biens publics, à l'aide de modèles mathématiques et d'un système synthétique que nous avons construit chez Escherichia coli, dans lequel nous pouvons contrôler indépendamment la coopération et la conjugaison. Dans un premier temps, nous montrons expérimentalement que le transfert horizontal favorise le maintien de la coopération dans une population structurée, en augmentant la sélection de parentèle agissant au niveau des gènes transférés. Dans un second temps, nous montrons expérimentalement et théoriquement que l'échange génétique lui-même peut être sélectionné: les bactéries transférant des plasmides codant pour des biens publics sont favorisées dans une population structurée. Le transfert de gènes codant pour des biens privés peut également être sélectionné, à condition que ce transfert s'effectue entre bactéries apparentées. Finalement, ces interactions entre transfert horizontal et coopération peuvent mener à une association entre allèles de coopération et de transfert, expliquant la fréquence élevée de gènes sociaux situés sur des plasmides.Ces résultats permettent de mieux comprendre le maintien de comportements coopératifs chez les bactéries, et suggèrent des moyens de cibler certains cas de virulence bactérienne. / Bacteria are social organisms which participate in multiple cooperative and group behaviours. They moreover have peculiar genetic systems, as they often bear mobile genetic elements like plasmids, molecular symbionts that are the cause of widespread horizontal gene transfer and play a large role in bacterial evolution. Both cooperation and horizontal transfer have consequences for human health: cooperative behaviours are very often involved in the virulence of pathogens, and horizontal gene transfer leads to the spread of antibiotic resistance. The evolution of plasmid transfer has mainly been analyzed in terms of infectious benefits for selfish mobile elements. However, chromosomal genes can also modulate horizontal transfer. A huge diversity in transfer rates is observed among bacterial isolates, suggesting a complex co-evolution between plasmids and hosts. Moreover, plasmids are enriched in genes involved in social behaviours, and so could play a key role in bacterial cooperative behaviours. We study here the coevolution of gene mobility and sociality in bacteria. To investigate the selective pressures acting on plasmid transfer and public good production, we use both mathematical modelling and a synthetic system that we constructed where we can independently control public good cooperation and plasmid conjugation in Escherichia coli. We first show experimentally that horizontal transfer allows the specific maintenance of public good alleles in a structured population by increasing relatedness at the gene-level. We further demonstrate experimentally and theoretically that this in turn allows for second-order selection of transfer ability: when cooperation is needed, alleles promoting donor and recipient abilities for public good traits can be selected both on the plasmid and on the chromosome in structured populations. Moreover, donor ability for private good traits can also be selected on the chromosome, provided that transfer happens towards kin. The interactions between transfer and cooperation can finally lead to an association between transfer and public good production alleles, explaining the high frequency of genes related to cooperation that are located on plasmids. Globally, these results provide insight into the mechanisms maintaining cooperation in bacteria, and may suggest ways to target cooperative virulence.

This diploma thesis focused on screening for bacterial pathogens and antagonists suppressing common scab mainly caused by Streptomyces scabiei. Common scab affects some agricultural crops causing significant economical losses. Bacterial strains, mostly streptomycetes, were isolated from potato rhizosphere because they belong to most important producents of secondary metabolites and the causative agents of the disease are also members of this genus. The isolated bacteria were characterised by PCR amplification and sequencing of 16S rRNA gene to reveal their phylogenetic relationships. The ability of isolated strains to suppress growth of Streptomyces scabiei was tested by a simple co-cultivation experiment. The strains were tested by PCR for presence of specific genes for biosynthesis of thaxtomin A, a common virulence factor found in all described pathogens causing symptoms of this disease on the surface of affected tubers. Genes for synthesis of thaxtomin belong to pathogenicity island. Standard of phytotoxin thaxtomin A was used to optimize its analysis by mass spectroscopy for further in vivo and in vitro experiments. Phylogenetic analysis of strains harboring one of the genes necessary for thaxtomin A biosynthesis supported the hypothesis of sharing the pathogenicity island by horizontal gene...

Plasmids are small, circular, extrachromosomal double-stranded genetic elements present in bacteria. Plasmids can replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome and play an important role as a transmitter of antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria. Antibiotic resistance genes have been shown to be selected for even in the presence of subinhibitory levels of antibiotics, but the effect of antibiotics on conjugation is not as well understood. To study this, we designed a novel conjugation tracking system utilizing a Cre-expressing plasmid and a chromosomal floxed blue fluorescent protein (BFP) gene. We found that our model worked opposite as intended as cells expressed BFP before conjugation and lost BFP expression upon recombination. An issue with the system was isolated to the direction of the single loxP site remaining after recombination. Both loxP sites were inverted but this did not restore the intended expression of BFP after recombination. Subsequently the system was modified to increase the space between the promoter region and the single loxP site remaining after recombination. This extension produced the desired result as BFP expression now increased upon recombination. Still, further work needs to be done to construct a Cre-expressing plasmid, tune expression of BFP, and show expression of yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) in our model before the system can be applied to clinical isolates.